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Microanatomy of the kidney
functional anatomy of the kidney
nephrons, collecting tubules, collecting ducts (and associated structures)
Nephron
Microscopic functional filtration unit of kidney
consists of: renal corpuscle and renal tubule
all of corpuscle and most of tubules reside in cortex
Renal corpuscle
Enlarged bulbous region of nephron within renal cortex
composed of glomerulus and glomerular capsule
Glomerulus
a tangle of capillary loops, glomerular capillaries
blood enters via afferent arteriole
blood exits via the efferent arteriole
Glomerular capsule
internal permeable visceral layer
external impermeable parietal layer
capsular space between two layers
Renal tubule
1.) Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
2.) Nephron Loop
3.) distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
PCT
First region of the renal tubule
originates at the tubular pole of the renal corpuscle
simple cuboidal epithelium
Microvilli increase surface area and reabsorption capacity
Nephron loop
Originates at a sharp bend in PCT
descending limb: extends medially from PCT
ascending limb: returned to renal cortex and ends at DCT
Hairpin turn
DCT
Originates in the renal cortex at the end of ascending limb
extends to collecting tubule
lined by simple cuboidal epithelium without microvilli
appears clear when viewed with a light microscope
Mictrurition
expulsion of urine from the bladder
associated with two reflexes: storage and micturition
Storage reflex
continuous sympathetic stimulation
causes relaxation of the detrusor to accommodate urine
stimulates contraction of the internal urethral sphincter
Micturition reflex
the volume of urine in the bladder is between 200-300mL
Visceral sensory neurons signaled by baroreceptors
Micturition center
alter’s nerve signals down the spinal cord through pelvis splanchnic nerves
Urine production
Filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
Glomerular filtration
in glomerular capillaries
separates some water and dissolved solutes from blood plasma
water and solutes enter the capsular space of the renal corpuscle
separated fluid is called filtrate
Tubular reabsorption
Movement of components within the tubular fluid
move by diffusion, osmosis, or active transport
return to blood within peritubular capillaries and vasa recta
all vital solutes and most water reabsorbed
waste product, excess solutes, and some water remains
Tubular secretion
Movement of solutes, usually by active transport
move out of blood within peritubular and vasa recta capillaries
move into tubular fluid
the material moved selectively into tubules to be excreted
Upper GI Tract
Oral cavity, salivary glands, tongue, teeth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach
Oral Cavity + salivary glands
mechanical digestion begins
saliva is secreted from salivary glands in response to food
contains salivary amylase, an enzyme initiating the digestion of starch
mixed with ingested materials to form a bolus
Tongue
Manipulates and mixed materials during chewing
important functions in swallowing and speech
Teeth
Grinding and crushing material in mouth
Dentin
primary mass of tooth
Enamel
external surface of teeth
Pulp cavity
center of tooth filled with CD and pulp
Root cancal
continuous with pulp cavity, opens to tissue around
Pharynx
Bolus moved to the pharynx during swallowing
mucus secreted to facilitate swallowing
Esophagus
Bolus transported form the pharynx into the stomach
lubricated by mucus secretions
Stomach
bolus mixed with gastric secretions by smooth muscle contraction
secretions produced by epithelial cells of the stomach
chyme formed from mixing
regions: fundus, body, pylorus
Lower GI tract
small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
small intestine
divided into three regions: duodenum, jejunum, ileum
receives chyme from stomach mixed with accessory organ secretions
most chemical digestion and absorption happen here
Duodenum
the first segment of the small intestine
receives chyme from the stomach
receives accessory gland secretions from the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
Jejunum
the middle region of the small intestine
two fifth of the total length of the small intestine
primary region for chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
Ileum
last region of the small intestine
forms three-fifths of the small intestine
continues absorptions of digested material
Large intestine
primarily absorbs water, electrolytes, and some vitamins
feces produced and eliminated through the anus
Cecum
intraperitoneal blind sac in the right lower abdominal quadrant
chyme entering from the ileum
veriform appendix
harbors beneficial bacteria
colon
the second portion of the large intestine
has four segments: ascending transverse, descending, sigmoid (self-explanatory)
Rectum
Muscular tube that expands to store feces
Liver
accessory digestive organ and the largest internal organ
right upper quadrant of the abdomen immediately inferior to the diaphragm
Gallbladder
saclike organ attached to the inferior surface of the liver
stores concentrate and release bile produced in the liver
Pancreas
Produces and secrete insulin and glucagon
produces pancreatic juice to assist with digestive activities
Digestion
breakdown of ingested food into smaller structures
two types: mechanical + chemical
Mechanical digestion
Material physically broke down by chewing and mixing
Chemical digestion
Involved specific enzymes to break chemical bonds
absorption
transport of digested molecules, electrolytes, vitamins, water
move from the GI tract into blood or lymph
Elimination
expulsion of indigestible components that are not absorbed
Mixing
Backward and forward motion that lacks directional movement
blends ingested materials with secretions
Propulsion
direction movement of materials through GI tract
Coitus
sexual intercourse
Ovulation
release of an egg from the ovary
Fertilization
two gametes fuse to form a new diploid cell
restores the diploid number of chromosomes
determines the sex of an organism
initiates cleavage
Puberty
External sex characteristics become more prominent such as breast enlargement in females
pubic hair growth in both sexes and fully functioning reproductive organs in both sexes
gonads start to secrete their sex hormones and gametes begin to mature within gonads
Menarche
Person’s first menstrual cycle
Menopause
When a woman has stopped having monthly menstrual cycles for a year and is not pregnant
lactation
production and release of breast milk from mammary glands
Ejaculation
when semen is released during intercourse
Implantation
attachment of the fertilized egg or blastocyst to the wall of the uterus at the start of pregnancy
parturition
action of giving brith to young, childbirth
Postpartum
following childbirth or the birth of young
Mastication
Chewing
mechanically reduces bulk to facilitate swallowing
increases surface area to facilitate exposure to digestive enzymes
promotes salivation
Deglutition
Swallowing
Moving ingested materials from the oral cavity to the stomach: 3 phases
Digestion
Breakdown of ingested food into smaller structures
Change large complex molecules into smaller molecules
Defecation
Elimination of feces
Genotype
Genetic makeup of an individual
Phenotype
Physical expression of genotype
Flow of Urine
Urinary tract: ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
Ureters
long epithelial-lined fibromuscular tubes
conduct urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder
Retroperitoneal
originate from the renal pelvis as it exits the hilum of the kidney
Urinary bladder
expandable, muscular container
reservoir for urine
inverted pyramidal shape when empty
Trigone
posterior triangular area of the bladder wall
funnel to direct urine into the urethra
common with infections
remains immobile as the bladder fills and empties
Urethra
Epithelial-lined fibromuscular tube
exits the urinary bladder through the urethral opening
conducts urine to the exterior of the body
Internal urethral sphincter
Involuntary, superior sphincter
formed by skeletal muscle fibers of the pelvic diaphragm
voluntary sphincter controlled by the somatic nervous system
Learn muscle control of muscle during toilet training
Flow of food
Oral cavity → pharynx → esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine
Movement of gametes
sperm migrate through the cervical mucus and travel about 2-3 millimeters per minute aided by contractions of the uterine and cervical muscles
Carbohydrates
catalyzed by salivary amylase from salivary glands
broken down in the small intestine by pancreatic amylase
Maltase breaks bonds between the two glucose molecules
Proteins
broken down by enzymes
digestion releases individual amino acids
begins with the stomach lumen with pepsin
broken down by trypsin and dipeptidase in the small intestine
lipids
broken down in the stomach by lingual lipase and gastric lipase
gastric lipase in the stomach
pancreatic lipase in the small intestine
Oxytocin
increased levels produced by the hypothalamus
involved in uterine contractions
involved in milk expulsion from mammary glands
increase in the second and third trimesters
female Gametes
Oocyte
single gamete monthly
Male gametes
100 million/day
stored for a short time only
if not expelled form the body, they are reabsorbed
Meiosis
sex cell division
4 haploid daughter cells genetically different from parent cells
includes crossing over
get genes from both parents on one chromosome
Interphase
cell phase prior to meiosis
DNA on each cell replicated
replicated chromosomes now composed of two sister chromatids
Calculi
kidney stones
formed by crystalline minerals building up in the kidney
more common in males
most pass on their own in less than 4mm diameter
may require lithotripsy
UTI
occurs when bacteria or fungi multiply within the urinary tract
women are more prone due to short urethra
often first develops in the urethra
diagnosed through urinalysis
treated with antibiotics
Gerd
inflammation of the esophagus due to acidic chyme refluxing into the esophagus
pain posterior to the sternum, heartburn
treatment: lifestyle changes
can result from chronic reflux
build-up of scar tissue
Barrett esophagus
Change from stratified squamous to columnar secretory epithelium
increase risk of cancerous growth
Vomiting
rapid expulsion of gastric contents through the oral cavity
controlled by the vomiting center in the medulla oblongata
closure of nasal passages and glottis
gastric contents forced through the esophagus
Cirrhosis of liver
hepatocytes replaced by fibrous scar tissue
compresses blood vessels
compresses bile ducts in the liver
caused by chronic injury to hepatocytes (chronic alcoholism)
Diarrhea
disruption of normal mechanism to absorb intestinal water
Nondisjunction
Failure of separation of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids
Gamete with 22 or 24 chromosomes
Resulting gamete
May have 47 chromosomes (trisomy)
Individuals with 3 copies of one chromosome
May have 45 chromosomes (monosomy)
An individual with 1 copy of a chromosome
Tubal pregnancy
One type of ectopic pregnancy
Fertilized egg implants in the uterine tube
Unable to expand as the embryo grows
Embryo viable only until week 8
Uterine wall ruptures if the embryo is not removed
Hemorrhage and loss of life are possible
STI
Groups of infectious diseases transmitted via sexual contact
STIs are transmitted because symptoms go unnoticed
Condoms help prevent spread but not 100%
A leading cause of pelvic inflammatory disease in women
This can lead to blockage of tubes and infertility
Chlamydia
Most frequently reported in the U.S.
Due to the Chlamydia trachomatis bacterium
Most people asymptomatic
May have symptoms of vaginal discharge, painful urination, back pain
Treated with antibiotics
genital herpes
Caused by herpes simplex virus
Cyclic outbreaks of blister formation in genital and anal regions
No cure; antiviral medications lessen the severity and length
Gonorrhea
Caused by bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Spread by sexual contact or from mother to baby during delivery
Treatment with antibiotics
syphilis
Caused by bacterium Treponema pallidum
Spread sexually via contact with a syphilitic sore, chancre, or in utero
Treatment with antibiotics
vertex position
Head down; face toward the sacrum
Ideal position for dilating the cervix and pushing fetus through vagina
Breech position
Buttocks first
May delay cervical dilation
Variant position
Forceps, a vacuum may be needed.
Cesarean section: Fetus delivered through an abdominal incision
Mitosis
Somatic cell division
produces 2 diploid daughter cells genetically identical to parent cells
no crossing over
female gamete movement
uterine tubes → infundibulum → ampulla → isthmus → uterine part of tube → wall of uterine tube