Gender identity

According to Margaret Mead (1935), what did her study on the social construction of gender identities reveal about the Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli societies?

Margaret Mead's (1935) study on the social construction of gender identities revealed:1. Arapesh: Both males and females were gentle and responsive.2. Mundugumor: Both males and females were fierce and aggressive.3. Tchambuli: Males focused on appearance, while females were dominant and managerial.This demonstrated that gender behaviors are culturally determined, not biologically fixed.

Explain Judith Butler's concept of 'Performativity' in relation to gender identity.

Judith Butler's concept of 'Performativity' (1990) argues that gender is not an inherent or natural state but a social construct. It is produced through repetitive, stylized actions and behaviors that are disciplined to conform to societal expectations of masculinity and femininity. These performances create the illusion of a stable gender identity, which is, in fact, an 'act' rather than a true essence.

How did Connelly's (1998) study demonstrate the intersection of ethnicity and gender role socialization?

Connelly (1998) studied how ethnicity intersects with gender role socialization among British primary school children. She found that:1. Irish and Afro-Caribbean girls were often more assertive.2. Asian girls were often perceived as more 'feminine' (polite, quiet) due to their families' more traditional views.This difference in expectations and identity often led to lower self-esteem among Asian girls who did not conform to these traditional ideals.

What four key processes did Ann Oakley (1982) identify as methods of gender role socialization within the family?

Ann Oakley (1982) identified four key processes through which gender roles are socialized within the family:1. Canalisation: Directing children towards gender-appropriate toys and activities (e.g., dolls for girls, football for boys).2. Verbal Appellation: Using gendered language and labels (e.g., 'little angel' for girls, 'naughty boy' for boys).3. Domestic Activities: Assigning gender-specific chores and tasks (e.g., girls doing more housework, boys doing lawn work).4. Manipulation: Encouraging gender-appropriate behavior and discouraging cross-gender behavior through praise or discouragement.

Identify and explain the four 'Gender Codes' that Stehtham (1986) identified as shaping gender identity in children.

Stehtham (1986) identified four 'Gender Codes' that shape gender identity in children by the age of five:1. Appearance codes: Learning gender-appropriate dress, hairstyles, and use of cosmetics.2. Activity codes: Engaging in gender-specific games and toy choices (e.g., physical games for boys, caring toys for girls).3. Communication codes: Developing gendered speech patterns and interaction styles (e.g., boys being more domineering, girls more cooperative).4. Control codes: Experiencing different levels of social control, with girls being more strictly controlled for social behavior than boys.

Explain Pearsons' (1981) 'Warm Bath Theory' and its implications for gender roles.

Pearsons' (1981) 'Warm Bath Theory' suggests that the family functions as a relaxing refuge for the male breadwinner, similar to a 'warm bath' where he can de-stress from work. This theory implies that women (mothers) are primarily responsible for providing this emotional and domestic stability, thereby reinforcing traditional gender roles where men are instrumental (perform roles outside the home) and women are expressive (provide emotional support and domestic care).

How does Francis (2000) argue that the 'hidden curriculum' in education reinforces gender identities?

Francis (2000) argues that the 'hidden curriculum' in education reinforces gender identities through:1. Gendered Verbal Behaviour: Boys often dominate classroom discussions and are rewarded for being loud, while girls are rewarded for quietness and neatness.2. Gendered Language: Textbooks and classroom language frequently use male-centric terms.3. Teacher Perceptions: Teachers may hold unconscious stereotypes, potentially having lower academic expectations for boys or seeing schools as 'feminized,' impacting how they interact with students.4. Gendered Discipline: Different forms of punishment are applied based on gender, reinforcing traditional stereotypes (e.g., boys for 'rough' behavior, girls for 'unladylike' behavior).

What is Whittington's (1998) concept of the 'crisis of masculinity'?

Whittington's (1998) concept of the 'crisis of masculinity' suggests that with increasing female success and the changing nature of work, traditional forms of male dominance are challenged. This can lead to a perceived crisis among men, manifesting in behaviors such as increased male youth suicide rates and the development of 'lad culture' (e.g., excessive drinking, casual sex) as compensatory mechanisms to reassert a traditional, often aggressive, masculinity.

Explain McRobbie's (1978) critique of the 'male gaze' in media and its effects on women.

McRobbie's (1978) critique builds on Mulvey's (1975) concept of the 'male gaze,' arguing that media frequently presents women as sexual objects, often conforming to a narrow ideal of beauty (e.g., 'slim-blonde-sexy'). This objectification contributes to female dissatisfaction with their bodies and can lead to issues like eating disorders, as women internalize and strive for unattainable ideals presented by the media.

What trend in media advertising did Croughton (2010) observe regarding images of men and women?

Croughton (2010) observed an increased sexualization of images of both men and women in media advertising, with a prominent emphasis placed on physical appearance and attractiveness for both genders.

What gender difference in advertising trends did Hobbs (2000) identify?

Hobbs (2000) found a significant gender difference in advertising trends, specifically noting that women's magazines contained 15 times more advertisements and articles related to weight loss and diet compared to men's magazines. This highlights a disproportionate media focus on body image pressures for women.