HIST 1600 Exam 2 Discussion Questions

Joint Resolution on Cuba (April 20, 1898)

In April 1898, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution recognizing Cuban independence, demanding that Spain leave Cuba, authorizing U.S. military intervention, and promising not to annex Cuba. This move, fueled by humanitarian concerns, the Maine explosion, and anti-colonial rhetoric, set the stage for the Spanish-American War and expanded U.S. influence abroad.

Treaty of Paris (1898)

• Ended the Spanish-American War (signed Dec. 10, 1898).

• Spain ceded:

  • Cuba (independent, U.S. temporarily occupied)

  • Puerto Rico & Guam (to U.S.)

  • Philippines (to U.S. for $20 million)

• Key Provisions:

  • Spain evacuated all ceded territories.

  • POWs & political prisoners released.

  • Spain & U.S. waived war-related claims.

  • U.S. took over public property; private property protected.

  • Inhabitants’ rights & future citizenship left to U.S. decision.

  • Freedom of religion guaranteed.

  • Ongoing court cases continued.

  • Spanish copyrights/patents honored.

  • Spain got trade/shipping equality for 10 years.

  • Spain could establish consulates in new U.S. territories.

Platt Amendment (1901)

• Context: Drafted by U.S. in 1901, added to Cuba’s constitution in 1902 under pressure.

• Purpose: Gave U.S. control over Cuban foreign policy, debt, and internal affairs; made Cuba a U.S. protectorate.

• Key Provisions:

  • Cuba barred from foreign treaties or allowing foreign military bases.

  • Cuba couldn’t incur debt it couldn’t pay.

  • U.S. had the right to intervene to protect independence & property.

  • Cuba had to lease/sell land for U.S. naval bases (e.g., Guantanamo Bay).

  • Cuba had to make these terms part of a permanent treaty (1903).

• Repealed in 1934 under FDR’s Good Neighbor Policy.

• Impact: Severely limited Cuban sovereignty; set a precedent for future U.S. interventions in Latin America.

Cardenas Oil Expropriation Speech (1938)

• Context: On March 18, 1938, President Lázaro Cárdenas announced Mexico’s expropriation of all foreign oil companies (mainly U.S. & British).

• Why?

  • Defied Mexican courts: Foreign firms refused to follow labor rulings.

  • Threat to sovereignty: Undermined Mexico’s legal and political authority.

  • Economic sabotage: Companies plotted to harm Mexico’s economy.

  • National crisis: Oil disruption risked paralyzing industry, banks, and the state.

• Justifications:

  • Sovereignty: Mexico’s right to control its resources.

  • Worker rights: Upheld justice and labor protections.

  • Economic independence: Liberation from foreign control.

  • Global responsibility: Mexico pledged not to aid dictators with its oil.

• Anticipated Effects:

  • Economic hardship and foreign backlash expected.

  • Called for national unity and sacrifice to defend sovereignty.

• Significance: Major test of the U.S. Good Neighbor Policy; symbol of Latin American nationalism.

Getúlio Vargas – "Carta Testamento" (1954)

• Context: Written before Vargas’ suicide on August 24, 1954, amid political and economic crisis in Brazil.

• Opposition: Faced attacks from Brazilian elites, military, and foreign (esp. U.S.) economic interests.

• Key Themes:

  • Betrayal by elites & foreign capital: Accused them of trying to destroy his government.

  • Champion of the poor: Claimed lifelong fight for workers’ rights and national dignity.

  • Economic reformer: Promoted Petrobras, minimum wage, nationalized industries, and fought foreign control.

  • Martyrdom: Framed suicide as a sacrifice for Brazil – “I leave life to enter History.”

  • Legacy: Urged the people to remember him and continue the fight for justice.

  • Forgiveness & defiance: Ends with “To hatred I reply with pardon. And to those who think they defeated me, I reply with my victory.”

• Impact:

  • Sparked mass mourning, especially among the working class.

  • Cemented Vargas as a symbol of nationalism and resistance.

  • Deepened rifts in Brazilian politics between populists and elites for years.

Juan Perón – Twenty Fundamental Truths of Justicialism (1950) Core Values of Peronism

• True Democracy = People's Rule (Truth 1)

• Anti-elitist, anti-oligarchic; Peronism is popular and humble (Truths 2, 3, 7)

• Everyone is a worker; work gives dignity (Truths 4, 5)

• Unity & Loyalty: “Nothing better than another Peronist” (Truths 6, 11)

• Hierarchy of values: Fatherland → Movement → Individual (Truth 8)

Juan Perón – Twenty Fundamental Truths of Justicialism (1950) Political and Social Principles

• Politics is a tool, not an end — aim is national greatness & people’s happiness (Truth 9)

• Two pillars: Social Justice (equity) & Social Assistance (support for the needy) (Truth 10)

• Children = the only privileged class (Truth 12)

• Peronism rejects both capitalism and Marxism; aims for a “third way” (Truths 15–17)

Juan Perón – Twenty Fundamental Truths of Justicialism (1950)

• A government must have doctrine + soul (Truths 13–14)

• Peronism = simple, practical, Christian, and popular

• National vision: Socially Just, Economically Free, Politically Sovereign Argentina (Truth 18)

• Advocates for a strong state + free, organized people (Truths 19–20)

• Final message: “The best we have on this earth is the People.”

Eva Perón – Women’s Suffrage Speech (1947)

• Celebrates victory after decades of women’s struggle for the right to vote in Argentina.

• Frames suffrage as a moral duty and political responsibility, not just a right.

• Denounces elites and reactionaries; credits Peronism and working-class women for the triumph.

• Calls for a “war” for justice through civic engagement, not violence.

• Links female empowerment to national identity, social justice, and loyalty to Perón.

• Declares that with women’s votes and Perón’s leadership, Argentina’s democracy will be complete.

Jorge Eliécer Gaitán – “Prayer for Peace” (1948)

• Emotional appeal to President Ospina for an end to political violence and persecution in Colombia.

• Delivered to a silent, mourning crowd, symbolizing unity, dignity, and deep pain.

• Denounces government repression, urging debates within democratic norms, not violence.

• Uses Christian, moral, and nationalist rhetoric to frame peace as a humanitarian duty.

• Warns that true power lies with the people, not armed elites—urges peaceful reform before it’s too late.

• Assassinated two months later, sparking La Violencia, a long civil conflict in Colombia.

Haya de la Torre – “What is the APRA?” (1926)

• APRA (founded 1924): Anti-imperialist, revolutionary movement to unite Latin America against U.S. domination and internal oligarchies.

• Five-Point Program:

  1. Action against Yankee imperialism

  2. Latin American political unity

  3. Nationalization of land/industry

  4. Internationalization of Panama Canal

  5. Solidarity with oppressed peoples

• Criticizes Latin American elites for collaborating with imperialism, keeping workers and peasants in servitude.

• Calls for worker-led governments, regional unity, and sovereignty through national control of resources.

• APRA is politically organized, transnational, and led by workers, peasants, students, and intellectuals.

JFK – April 20, 1961 (Post–Bay of Pigs)

• Context: After failed U.S.-backed invasion of Cuba; aims to regain trust and clarify Cold War strategy.

• Cuba Crisis: Frames Cuba as part of global Communist subversion—not a U.S. military failure but a freedom struggle.

• U.S. Stance: Military nonintervention upheld, but warns U.S. restraint is not unlimited.

• Lessons Learned:

  • Free societies must match Communist discipline.

  • Cold War is ideological, economic, global—fought in “villages, markets, classrooms.”

  • U.S. must adapt strategy beyond conventional warfare.

• Latin America & Solidarity: Calls for hemispheric unity against Communism.

• Moral Frame: Praises Cuban exiles, draws parallels to victims of Communism globally.

• Conclusion: Reaffirms U.S. resolve, leadership, and ideological commitment to freedom worldwide.

Second Declaration of Havana (1962)

• Author: Fidel Castro

• Occasion: Response to Cuba's expulsion from the OAS (Feb 4, 1962)

• Key Points:

  • Anti-Imperialism: Castro frames Cuba’s history as a struggle against U.S. imperialism, declaring Cuba a symbol of freedom and resistance in Latin America.

  • Global Solidarity: Cuba’s struggle is universal, shared by Latin America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania, all exploited by imperial powers.

  • Socio-Economic Realities: Highlights poverty, illiteracy, and inequality in Latin America, contrasting it with U.S. economic exploitation.

  • U.S. Control: U.S. uses military alliances and supports dictatorships to maintain control and suppress popular movements.

  • Revolution as Duty: Legal change is impossible under repressive regimes; revolution is the only solution.

  • Rejection of “Exporting Revolution”: Revolution is made by the people, not exported; Cuba offers its example, not intervention.

  • Revolutionary Inevitability: Predicts revolution where U.S. control and oligarchic power are strongest, arguing that change is historically inevitable.

  • Final Message: The Cuban Revolution proves the oppressed can win; revolution is justified, necessary, and must be actively pursued.

• Significance: Serves as a foundational document for anti-imperialist movements globally, promoting the Cuban model as a path for oppressed nations to follow.

President Árbenz’s Resignation Speech (1954)

• Context: Jacobo Árbenz, democratically elected president of Guatemala (1951-1954), resigned after U.S.-backed coup (Operation PBSUCCESS) due to agrarian reform that threatened U.S. interests, particularly the United Fruit Company (UFCO).

• Key Points:

  1. U.S. Intervention and Corporate Interests: Árbenz blames the U.S. and UFCO for the coup, accusing them of using communism as a pretext to protect economic interests.

  2. Violent Foreign Intervention: Denounces U.S. use of mercenaries, aircraft, and bombing of civilian areas, damaging Guatemala’s economy and harming civilians.

  3. Defense of Democracy: Árbenz affirms his government’s commitment to democratic reform, insisting it was not communist.

  4. Strategic Resignation: Resigns voluntarily to prevent further bloodshed, transferring power to Carlos Enrique Díaz, urging peace and the preservation of the October Revolution’s gains.

  5. Final Words: Ends with defiance, loyalty to democracy, and reaffirming his commitment to Guatemala’s progress, despite resignation.

• Significance: A rare denunciation of U.S. imperialism, marking the end of Guatemala’s democratic experiment and the beginning of military dictatorship and civil war. Highlights the intersection of corporate and geopolitical power in foreign policy.

Dulles’ 1954 Radio Address on Guatemala

• Context: Delivered by U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles a week after Jacobo Árbenz’s resignation, amid the CIA-backed coup in Guatemala. Dulles, with personal and professional ties to the United Fruit Company (UFCO), framed the coup as part of the Cold War struggle against communism.

• Key Points:

  1. Framing as a Victory Against Communism: Dulles presents the coup as a victory over Soviet-backed communism, portraying Guatemala as a base for subversion in the Americas.

  2. Monroe Doctrine Justification: Uses the Monroe Doctrine to argue that Guatemala’s communist leanings violated U.S. foreign policy, asserting U.S. intervention was justified.

  3. Árbenz’s Government as a Communist Front: Claims communists infiltrated Guatemala’s reform programs, portraying Árbenz’s government as manipulated by communist forces.

  4. Moral and Strategic Justification: Asserts any communist presence in the Americas is a threat to the Free World, and that U.S. intervention was needed to protect democracy.

  5. U.S. as Liberator: Pledges U.S. support for Guatemala’s democratic aspirations, omitting any mention of U.S. economic interests or its role in orchestrating the coup.

• Significance: The speech shaped public perception of the coup, justifying U.S. interventionism through anti-communist rhetoric while masking economic and geopolitical motivations.

Salvador Allende’s Final Radio Address (1973)

• Context: Delivered by President Salvador Allende on September 11, 1973, during the military coup in Chile, as fighter jets bombed the La Moneda Presidential Palace. This speech is iconic for its mixture of defiance, hope, and resistance.

• Key Themes:

  1. Betrayal by the Military: Allende expresses sorrow over the betrayal by military leaders, particularly Admiral Merino and General Mendoza, who had pledged loyalty just the day before.

  2. Refusal to Resign: Allende vows not to resign, even at the cost of his life, emphasizing his sacrifice for democracy and the people.

  3. Faith in the People: He expresses hope for the future, believing that social justice will triumph despite the immediate violence, and that history belongs to the people.

  4. Condemnation of Foreign Influence: Allende accuses U.S. imperialism and the Chilean oligarchy of undermining his government for profit and power, fueling the coup.

  5. Call to Action for the People: He urges workers, peasants, and all Chileans to resist fascism with dignity but not to sacrifice themselves recklessly.

  6. Vision of Chile's Future: Ends with a hopeful message that Chile will once again embrace freedom and justice in the future.

  7. Legacy and Martyrdom: Allende accepts his death as a moral sacrifice, leaving behind a legacy of dignity and commitment to democracy.

• Significance: The speech became a symbol of resistance to authoritarianism and imperialism, marking the end of democracy in Chile and the beginning of Pinochet’s dictatorship. It continues to inspire leftist movements across Latin America and beyond.

Henry Kissinger’s Memo to Nixon (1970) - Chile Strategy

• Context: Written on Nov 5, 1970, after Salvador Allende, a Marxist, was elected President of Chile.

• Key Themes:

  1. Strategic Importance: Allende’s election is seen as a major threat to U.S. influence in Latin America and globally, potentially inspiring other countries to elect Marxist governments.

  2. U.S. Interests: Over $1 billion in investments at risk, plus $1.5 billion in debt owed by Chile.

  3. Dilemma: While Allende was democratically elected, U.S. intervention could violate sovereignty. Inaction could embolden leftist movements.

  4. Strategic Options:

     • Coexistence: Accept Allende and influence him diplomatically (critically rejected by Kissinger).

     • Hostile Strategy: Includes both overt hostility (aid cuts) and covert pressure (economic and diplomatic isolation).

  5. Recommendation: Kissinger advocates for covert pressure to prevent Allende from consolidating power.

  6. Call for Leadership: Urges Nixon to make a firm decision to prevent Allende's success.

• Significance: The memo outlines U.S. strategy that eventually led to the 1973 Chilean coup, shaped by Cold War fears and U.S. economic interests.

Hugo Chávez’s 2006 UN Speech

• Date/Location: Sept 20, 2006, UN General Assembly

• Key Themes:

  • Attack on U.S. Imperialism: Chávez mocks Bush as “the devil” and criticizes U.S. foreign policy as hypocritical and aggressive, spreading false democracy through military force.

  • Critique of U.N.: Calls the UN “worthless” and proposes reforms like expanding the Security Council and abolishing U.S. veto power.

  • Support for Venezuela: Criticizes U.S. opposition to Venezuela’s Security Council bid and praises international support from Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

  • Global Movement: Advocates for sovereignty, justice, and an alternative to U.S. unipolarity, endorsing the Non-Aligned Movement and a multipolar world.

  • Symbolism: Ends with religious imagery, positioning Venezuela as a leader in global resistance to U.S. imperialism.

How does President Kennedy portray Cuba in his 1961 speech to the American Society of Newspaper Editors?

President Kennedy describes Cuba as a communist threat in the Western Hemisphere, associating it with Soviet influence. He portrays Cuba’s revolution as a challenge to the U.S. and its allies, emphasizing the importance of containing communism in the region.

Why do you think Kissinger’s memo was private and Dulles was public?

Kissinger’s memo was private to allow for more candid policy discussions among advisers, without exposing sensitive strategies or conflicting opinions. Dulles’ public statements aimed to communicate U.S. policy to the world and maintain diplomatic credibility.

How was the Zapatista (EZLN) movement different from the Sandinistas (Nicaragua) and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (El Salvador)?

The Zapatistas (EZLN) focused on indigenous rights and anti-globalization, primarily in southern Mexico, whereas the Sandinistas (Nicaragua) and FMLN (El Salvador) were Marxist-Leninist movements fighting for broader socialist revolutions. The Zapatistas emphasized autonomy and local control, while the others sought to establish more centralized, state-led revolutions.

What is the justification for the war in 1898?

The U.S. justified the Spanish-American War primarily by citing humanitarian concerns over Spain’s treatment of Cuba and the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbor, which was used to rally public support for intervention.

What does the Treaty of Paris (1898) establish regarding Cuba?

The Treaty of Paris ended the Spanish-American War, granting Cuba independence from Spain, but the U.S. retained control over Cuban foreign policy and established its influence through the Platt Amendment. Cuba was recognized as a sovereign nation, but its independence was heavily conditioned

What contradiction is revealed when comparing the 1898 U.S. Recognition of Cuban Independence and the Platt Amendment?

The U.S. recognized Cuba’s independence in 1898 but immediately imposed the Platt Amendment, which gave the U.S. significant control over Cuba’s government, economy, and foreign policy, undermining Cuba's true sovereignty.

According to the U.S. resolution recognizing Cuban independence in 1898, what did the United States promise regarding Cuba’s future?

The U.S. promised to support Cuba’s independence and its future self-government, asserting that it would not annex or control Cuba. This was a symbolic gesture of respect for Cuba’s sovereignty, despite the limitations imposed by the Platt Amendment.

What was the main goal of the Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) model adopted by many Latin American populist governments in the 20th century?

ISI aimed to reduce dependence on foreign goods by promoting domestic industrial production. This economic model sought to foster economic independence and self-sufficiency in Latin American countries through state-led industrialization.

According to Castro, why does revolution spread?

Castro argued that revolution spreads because of the shared struggles of oppressed peoples and the global nature of imperialism. He believed that as more people recognized their exploitation, revolutionary movements would grow.

What does the Platt Amendment allow the United States to do?

The Platt Amendment allowed the U.S. to intervene in Cuban affairs whenever it saw fit to maintain order and protect U.S. interests, particularly in terms of military and economic stability.

According to the Platt Amendment, what was Cuba NOT allowed to do without U.S. approval?

Under the Platt Amendment, Cuba was not allowed to sign treaties or borrow money from foreign powers without U.S. approval, effectively limiting its sovereignty and aligning its policies with U.S. interests.