Human Bio Exam

Everything since test 2 - final exam (starts at slide 17)

What are the three types of blood vessels that transport blood to and from body tissues

arteries, veins, capillaries

the artery carries blood ____ the heart

away from

artery walls have three layers, what are they and what are they each made of 

Tunica Intima (endothelium): thin, inner epithelium

Tunica Media (middle layer): smooth muscle and elastic tissue 

Tunica Adventitia (outer layer): connective tissue 

Arterioles are ___ arteries, it has a middle layer mostly made of ___ muscle 

smaller , smooth

What happens when arterioles contract vs relax 

contracts: constricts vessel, reducing blood flow and raising blood pressure 

relaxed: vessel dilates, increases blood flow, reduces blood pressure 

capillaries are known as ___ ___ between arterioles and venules, that have walls made only of_______

microscopic vessels, endothelium 

what occurs from capillary beds

gas, nutrient and waste exchange

what are precapillary spincters

appear before capillaries to control blood flow through capillary bed by contracting and relaxing, made of smooth muscle 

What is the alternative route for blood flow if the precapillary sphincters are “closed”

arteriovenous shunt (throughfare channel); blood goes directly from the arteriole to the venule — bypassing the capillaries

What are the two forces that drive fluid in and out of capillaries, what end of the capillary bed are they each at 

blood pressure drives fluid out  - mainly arterial end 

osmotic pressure draws water in - mainly venule end 

how does excess fluid accumulate and what happens with it

heart pumping puts pressure on blood

causes some water/proteins to move into extracellular fluid

network of drainage vessels pick up excess fluid

what is the main function of the lymphatic system

works with immune and cardiovascular system by collecting excess interstitial fluid and returning it to blood

once fluid enters the lymphatic vessels it is called ___

lymph

venules

small veins that receive blood from the capillaries

veins carry blood ____ the heart

toward

what are the 2 main structural differences in veins and arteries

venule and vein walls have the same 3 layers but less smooth muscle in the middle layer

walls of veins are thinner so they can expand to hold more blood (70% at a time)

veins that carry blood against gravity have ___ to keep blood flowing ___ the heart

valves, toward

what do veins do if hemorrhage (blood loss) occurs

nervous system causes veins to constrict to increase blood pressure

blood pressure is the pressure that _______, highest in ____, lowest in _____

pressure that blood exerts against a blood vessel wall, highest in the aorta, lowest in the superior venae cavae (veins)

pulse (heart rate)

surge of blood into an artery causes the walls to stretch and then recoil

pulse usually measured in what 2 spots, what is the average pulse 

radial artery at the wrist

carotid artery in the neck 

60-80 BPM

where is blood pressure measured, what is used to measure it

in the brachial artery of the arm with a sphygmomanometer

systolic pressure

the highest blood pressure, when blood is ejected from the heart

diastolic pressure

the lowest blood pressure, when the ventricles relax 

average blood pressure

120/80 mmHg (systolic/diastolic)

why is blood flow slowest in capillaries

to increase exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes

what is the cross sectional area

the total surface area of all the blood vessels of a certain type (like all capillaries combined).

• Capillaries have the largest total cross-sectional area, since there are so many of them —This large area slows blood flow

• Arteries and veins have smaller total cross-sectional areas, so blood moves faster through them.

blood velocity 

speed of blood flow 

venous return

flow of blood back to the heart through the veins after it has circulated through the body.

venous return is dependent on 3 additional factors, name and describe them 

• skeletal muscle pump: Muscles squeeze veins, pushing blood toward the heart.

• respiratory pump: Breathing changes chest pressure, helping pull blood upward.

• Valves: Stop blood from flowing backward between pumps.

blood flows in two circuits, name them and where they circulate

pulmonary circuit: circulates low O2 blood through the lungs

systemic circuit: circulates high O2 blood through body tissues 

the two types of blood vessels in the pulmonary circuit are ….

pulmonary vein and pulmonary artery 

explain the process of the pulmonary circuit 

right atrium pumps deoxygenated blood into right ventricle → pulmonary trunk 

trunk splits into right and left pulmonary arteries → go to lungs 

in lungs, pulmonary arteries (O2 poor)  branch into arterioles, lead to capillaries (gas exchange) 

pulmonary capillaries → venules → merge into pulmonary veins (O2 rich)

4 veins empty into left atrium 

explain the process of the systemic circuit 

left ventricle pumps blood into aorta → which branches to all body tissues 

arteries branch into arterioles → capillaries 

capillaries → venules → drain into veins → superior/inferior vena cavae

vena cava empty into right atrium

What is the hepatic portal system

a special route apart of the systemic circuit that don’t follow the usual pathway, specialized for blood filtration 

It carries nutrient-rich blood from the digestive organs to the liver before it goes to the heart

Explain the process of the hepatic portal system

nutrient rich blood from digestive tract → liver

liver synthesizes blood proteins from portal vein and stores glucose as glycogen 

liver removes toxins and pathogens 

blood drained from liver → hepatic veins → inferior vena cava 

cardiovascular disease includes disorders of the ______ and the _____

blood vessels and the heart

Name 2 disorders of blood vessels

hypertension, Atherosclerosis

Name a disorder of the heart

Heart failure

Hypertension can be classified by a systolic pressure of ____ or a diastolic pressure of _____

140 or greater, 90 or greater  (high blood pressure)

Hypertension is known as a ___ _____ because there are few symptoms until it causes kidney failure, heart attack, stroke 

“silent killer” 

What is hypertension treated with

diuretics (act on kidneys), which increase urine production + other drugs

Atherosclerosis is a buildup of ____ in the walls of blood vessels. This narrows blood vessel diameter, decreasing ______ to tissues 

plaque, blood supply 

therefore can cause clots to form in the roughened artery walls 

thrombus

a blood clot that is stationary

embolus

a blood clot that detaches and moves to distant sites

thromboembolism

an embolus that has become lodged in a blood vessel

Heart failure is when the heart no longer ____ _____

pumps properly 

What are the treatments of heart failure 

• wrapping heart to prevent enlargement

• ICD to correct rhythm

• heart transplant 

• injection of stem cells to repair 

• LVAD - pump to assist heart 

• artificial heart (temporary 

the respiratory system ensures that _____

oxygen enters the body and carbon dioxide leaves the body

during inspiration/inhalation air moves _____

from the atmosphere to lungs through cavities and tubes

during expiration/exhalation air moves _____

from the lungs to the atmosphere via cavities and tubes 

ventilation (breathing) depends on what

the cardiovascular system to transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs 

during cellular respiration, cells use up ____ and produce ____

oxygen and produce carbon dioxide

name the three ways the respiratory system works with the cardiovascular system to maintain homeostasis

1. external respiration: exchange of gases between air and blood 

2. transport of gases: from lungs and tissues 

3. internal respiration: exchange of gases between blood and tissue fluid 

What gives the airway (lungs) an oxygenated blood supply

bronchial artery and bronchial vein

what is included in the upper respiratory tract

• nasal cavities (air from nose to cavity) 

• pharynx (blood from cavity to pharynx) 

• glottis 

• larynx

the nasal cavities are separated from each other by a ____ composed of ____ and _____

septum, bone and cartilage

what filters the air/traps small particles in our nose so they don’t enter air passages

hairs

what is the nose lined with

mucous membrane; helps trap particles and move them to the pharynx → swallowed or spit out

under the mucous layer in our nose is the ____ which contain lots of ______ that help to warm and moisten incoming air 

submucosa, capillaries 

what structural feature of the nose makes us susceptible to nosebleeds 

abundance of capillaries 

what structural function in the nose makes us able to smell

olfactory (odor) receptors

____ in the eye drain into the nasal cavities by way of tear ducts

tear glands; causes a runny nose

nasal cavities also connect with skull ______

sinuses; fluid may accumulate creating pressure → headache

______ connect the nasopharynx to the middle ear

auditory tubes; may create a popping sensation when air pressure in middle ears equalizes with air pressure in nasopharynx 

Describe the structure of the pharynx (throat)

funnel shaped cavity that connects the nasal and oral cavities to the larynx

what are the 3 portions of the pharynx 

• nasopharynx: opens up with nasal

• oropharynx: with oral cavity

• laryngo-pharynx: opens up with larynx

tonsils are made of _____ and located at ___

lymphoid tissue, at junction of oral cavity and pharynx

The larynx is the ___ structure between the ____ and _____, houses the _____

cartilaginous, pharynx and trachea, the vocal cords

glottis

the slit between the vocal cords, when air passes through the vocal cords vibrate and produce sound

greater tension = greater pitch 

loudness = degree to which vocal cords vibrate 

when food is swallowed, the ____ moves upward against the _____

larynx, epiglottis: flap of tissue that prevents food from passing into the larynx 

Name all 4 components of the respiratory tract

trachea, bronchial tree, lungs, diaphragm

trachea is also known as the ____

windpipe; carries air to the lungs

the difference in passage of air between bronchus vs bronchioles

bronchus: passage of air to lungs

bronchioles: passage of air to alveoli 

lungs are made up of…..

alveoli (air sacs) that carry out gas exchange, secondary bronchi, bronchioles 

diaphragm

functions in ventilation; has skeletal muscles so it is voluntary

explain the structure of the trachea

walls reinforced by C-shaped cartilaginous rings → prevent collapsing

 → C shape allows esophagus to expand when swallowing 

lined with pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar epithelium and goblet cells 

→ mucus from goblet cells traps debris, then gets swept away from lungs and toward pharynx

tracheostomy 

a breathing tube inserted into the trachea 

Why is it called the bronchial tree

bronchi keep dividing into tiny vessels/branches like a tree 

explain the process of the bronchial tree

two primary bronchi (bronchus) lead from trachea into the lungs

the primary bronchi branch into secondary bronchi

continuing to branch until they are bronchioles (1mm, disappeared cartilage)

What contracts during an asthma attack

the smooth muscle of the bronchioles

the right lung has ____, while the left has _____

three lobes, two lobes (to make room for the heart) 

each lobe is divided into lobules 

each lung is enclosed by _____, two layers of fluid producing serous membrane 

pleurae 

explain surface tension within pleurae

between parietal and visceral pleurae 

due to hydrogen bonds between water molecules

causes parietal to pull the visceral when thoracic cavity enlarges → lung expands 

pleurisy 

inflammation of the pleurae; painful 

the lungs have how many alveoli 

about 300 million 

explain the structure of the alveoli

each sac is surrounded by blood capillaries

walls of sac and capillaries made of simple squamous epithelium 

gas exchange between air in alveoli and blood in capillaries 

____ is needed to produce ATP so it must be supplied to all cells and _____ produced must be removed from the body

oxygen, carbon dioxide

respiration is the exchange of gases not only in the ____ but also the ____

lungs, tissues

the principles of diffusion govern whether ……

O2 or CO2 enters or leaves the body

the amount of pressure each gas exerts is called …

partial pressure; symbolized as PCO2 or PO2

external respiration is the exchange of gases between ….

lung alveoli (lungs) and pulmonary capillaries (blood)

PCO2 is higher in the pulmonary capillaries than the air, thus…..

CO2 diffuses out of the blood into the lungs (would be opposite for O2)

how is most CO2 carried in plasma

as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)

internal respiration is the exchange of gases between …

capillaries entering tissues (blood) and cells of body tissues (tissue)

PCO2 is higher in tissue cells than in capillaries, thus….

CO2 diffuses out of the tissue cells into the blood (opposite for O2)

why is blood entering systemic capillaries bright red

because red blood cells contain oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)

Ventilation is governed by ____

Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s Law states…

at a constant temperature, the pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to it’s volume

→ pressure is high and low volume OR pressure is low and high volume