Field Methods Prelim

The Method of Tenacity

○ Information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it.

The Method of Intuition

Information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or "gut feeling".

The Method of Authority (method of faith)

○ A person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area

The Rational Method

○ Also known as rationalism.

○ It seeks answers by the use of logical reasoning

Premise Statements

describe facts or assumptions that are presumed

to be true

Argument

: a set of premise statements that are logically

combined to yield a conclusion.

The Empirical Method

○ Also known empiricism.

○ It uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

➢ An approach to acquiring knowledge involving the formulation of specific

questions and systematically finding answers.

➢ A developed system for asking and answering questions to ensure the

accuracy of the answers.

STEP 1: Observe Behavior or Other Phenomena

➢ It begins with causal or informal observations. It does not necessarily start with a well planned, systematic investigation.

➢ Induction (Inductive Reasoning): involves using a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations.

STEP 2: Form a Tentative Answer or Explanation (a Hypothesis)

➢ Begins by identifying variables that are associated with your observation.

a. Variables: characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals have a hypothesis or possible explanation.

b. Hypothesis: statement that describes or explains a relationship between or among variables. It is NOT a final answer but a proposal to be tested and evaluated.

Variables

characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals have a hypothesis or possible explanation.

Hypothesis

statement that describes or explains a relationship between or among variables. It is NOT a final answer but a proposal to be tested and evaluated.

STEP 3: Use your Hypothesis to Generate a Testable Prediction

➢ Apply the hypothesis to a specific, observable, real-world situation.

➢ Deduction (Deductive Reasoning): uses general statements as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples.

STEP 4: Evaluate the Prediction by Making Systematic Planned Observations

➢ Evaluate the prediction using the empirical method (direct observation)

➢ Data collection phase of the scientific method variables.

STEP 5: Use the Observations to Support, Refute, or Refine the Original Hypothesis

➢ The final step of the scientific method is to compare the actual observations with the predictions that were made from the hypothesis.

➢ The scientific method is not a linear process but rather a circular

process

Science is Empirical

○ Answers are obtained by making observations.

○ Scientific knowledge is based on measurable and testable data rather than on speculation or belief.

Science is Public

○ Available for evaluation by others;

○ Replication/ repetition of observation allows verification of the findings.

○ This transparency allows others to review, replicate, critique, or build upon the work, which strengthens the reliability and progress of scientific knowledge.

Science is Objective

○ Observations are structured to avoid researcher's biases.

○ It uses standardized methods and peer review to ensure conclusions are based on evidence and logical reasoning, rather than individual opinions

PHILOSOPHICAL WORLDVIEW IN RESEARCH

➢ These worldviews correspond to different epistemological (how knowledge is understood), ontological (nature of reality), and axiological (values and ethics) assumptions that influence research

design, methodologies, and ethical considerations. Understanding one's philosophical worldview helps clarify the research purpose, methods, and interpretation of results in a coherent framework.

PHILOSOPHICAL WORLDVIEW IN RESEARCH

➢ It is helpful to distinguish different philosophical worldviews that point researchers in somewhat different directions in their quests to make sense of our physical, social and psychological worlds.

Positivism

○ A good deal of research in the natural sciences has been driven by this perspective.

○ Positivists believe that, with appropriate measurement tools, scientists can objectively uncover absolute, undeniable truths about cause-and-effect relationships within the physical world and human

experience

Overly rigid objectivity and verification

Positivism insists that only observable, measurable, and empirically verifiable data constitute valid knowledge.

Reductionism

This limits its ability to fully understand or explain

nuanced social realities

Inability to handle complexity and contexts

Struggles with the dynamic, multifaceted nature of social phenomenon where multiple variables and perspectives interact in complex ways

Neglect of subjective experience

The positivists' insistence on researcher objectivity and detachment can overlook subjective meanings and the interpretive processes that shape social realities.

Postpositivist

We cannot be positive in our claims of knowledge when studying behavior and actions of humans. Everything should be quantified to produce meaningful concrete results.

Constructivist

Individuals develop subjective meanings of their experiences. Experience depressed through words can paint a better picture of a certain phenomena.

Transformative

Research inquiry should be intertwined with politics and political change agenda. Research should be conducted to increase quality of life and produce better societies.

Pragmatic

We need to look at many possibilities for collecting and analyzing data. Use of quantitative and qualitative data in expressing research findings.

Quantitative Research Approach

Based on measuring variables for individual participants to obtain scores, usually numerical values, which are submitted to statistical analysis for summary and interpretation

Qualitative Research Approach

Focuses on understanding phenomena through in-depth exploration and subjective analysis. It emphasizes meanings, experiences, and interpretations rather than numerical measurements

Mixed Method Research Approach

Combines qualitative and quantitative approaches to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem. It integrates both numerical data and detailed narratives.

STEP 1: Find a Research Idea

➢ Select a topic and search the literature to find unanswered questions.

STEP 2: Form a Hypothesis

➢ When you are selecting an answer to serve as your hypothesis, you should pick the answer that seems most likely to be correct.

STEP 3: Determine How You Will Define and Measure Your Variables

STEP 3: Determine How You Will Define and Measure Your Variables

STEP 4: Identify the Participants or Subjects for the Study

Decide how they will be selected, and plan for their ethical treatment (human-participants, nonhumans-subjects) plan for the safety and well-being of the research participants and inform them of all relevant

aspects of the research.

STEP 5: Select a Research Strategy

STEP 5: Select a Research Strategy

STEP 6: Select a Research Design

➢ Involves making decisions about the specific methods and procedures you will use to conduct the research study

STEP 7: Conduct the Study

➢ Data Collection

STEP 8: Evaluate the Data

➢ Use various statistical methods to examine and evaluate the data.

STEP 9: Report the Results

1. The results become general knowledge that other people can use to answer questions or to generate new research ideas as an investigative

foundation.

2. The research procedure can be replicated or refuted by other researchers.

STEP 10: Refine or Reformulate your Research Idea

➢ Most research studies generate more questions than they answer

STEP 1: Find a Research Idea

STEP 2: Form a Hypothesis

STEP 3: Determine How You Will Define and Measure Your Variables

STEP 4: Identify the Participants or Subjects for the Study

STEP 5: Select a Research Strategy

STEP 6: Select a Research Design

STEP 7: Conduct the Study

STEP 8: Evaluate the Data

STEP 9: Report the Results

STEP 10: Refine or Reformulate your Research Idea

10 RESEARCH PROCESS

Personal Interests and Curiosities

○ What interests you? What makes you curious? One way to find out is to think about the courses you have taken.

○ A research project can be about anything, so choose a topic you would like to learn more about.

Causal Observation

○ Watching the behavior or animals you encounter daily can be an excellent source of topics.

○ Also, you can monitor your own behavior, attitudes, and emotions. Any behavior that attracts your attention and arouses your curiosity can become a good research topic.

Reports of Others' Observations

○ The reports of observations made by other people are another good source of research ideas. These can include informal sources, such as news reports of current events, reports of recent research results or even topics introduced in novels and television programs.

○ Keep in mind the fact that published information, especially in nonscientific sources, is not necessarily true and does not always tell the

whole story

Practical Problems or Questions

○ Occasionally, topics for research will arise from practical problems or questions you encounter in your daily life, such as issues from your job, your family relationships, your schoolwork, or elsewhere in the world around you.

○ It also pertains to applied research and basic research

Basic Research

○ Focuses on formulating principles and theories to explain concepts or

phenomena.

○ It aims to derive knowledge that is universally applicable and push the

boundaries of our understanding.

Applied Research

○ Focuses on searching for solutions to specific problems. It involves applying existing knowledge to create solutions and improving products, services, or issues.

○ It is often directed toward finding a solution to a specific problem.

Behavioral Theories

Watch for theories that offer explanations for behavior or try to explain why different environmental factors lead to different behaviors. In addition to explaining previous research results, a good theory usually

predicts behavior in new situations

Primary Sources

First hand report of observations or research results.

(eg. Research articles in journals, dissertations, patents, conference papers (may vary by discipline)

Secondary Sources

A description or summary of another

person's work. They synthesize the primary (sometimes other secondary) sources

Tertiary Sources

Collections of primary and/or secondary sources. Little to no commentary on the works themselves, but discovery is based on various search strategies.

Subject words

list the correct terms, or subject words, used to identify and describe the variables in the study and the characteristics of the participants.

Using Online Databases

A typical database contains about 1 million publications, or records, that are all cross-referenced by subject and author names.

Full Text

each record is a complete, word-for-word copy of the original publication

Nonfull text:

provides more complete coverage of a topic area.

Find Suggestions for Future Researc

○ Look for explicit statements in the journal articles you already have;

○ Usually, a set of suggestions for future research is at the end of the

discussion section of most research reports.

Combine or Contrast Existing Results

○ Occasionally, it is possible to find a new research idea by combining two (or more) existing results;

○ Another possibility is that two research results seem to contradict each other. In this case, you could look for factors that differentiate the two

studies and might be responsible for the different results.

research gap

A _____ _____refers to unexplored or underexplored areas within a research field, where questions remain unanswered, inconsistencies exist, or insufficient evidence is available.

Evidence Gap (Contradictory Evidence Gap)

○ An evidence gap arises when research findings contradict each other, making it difficult to form a clear conclusion.

Knowledge Gap (Knowledge Void Gap)

○ A knowledge gap exists when there is a lack of research on a specific topic that is essential for advancing understanding.

Practical-Knowledge Gap (Action Knowledge Conflict Gap)

○ This gap occurs when research findings are not applied in real-world practices, or professional behavior does not align with research evidence.

Methodological Gap (Method and Research Design Gap)

○ A methodological gap arises when existing research methods are insufficient for answering specific research questions.

Empirical Gap (Evaluation Void Gap)

An empirical gap exists when theories or research findings need to be tested or evaluated in real-world settings.

Theoretical Gap (Theory Application Void Gap)

○ A theoretical gap happens when existing theories haven't been applied to specific research issues or when new theories are needed.

Population Gap

○ A population gap occurs when certain groups or populations are underrepresented in research.

Introduction

Discusses previous research that is fundamental to the current research study presents a clear statement of the problem being investigated.

Methods

Presents detail regarding the participants and the procedures used in the study

Results

Presents the details of the statistical analysis.

Discussion

Begins by summarizing the results of the study, stating the conclusions and noting any potential applications.

References

Lists complete references for all items cited in the report.

Logical

A good hypothesis is usually founded in established theories or developed from the results of previous research. Specifically, a good hypothesis should be the logical conclusion of a logical argument.

Testable

a good hypothesis must be testable; that is, it

must be possible to observe and measure all of the variables involved.

Refutable

ensures that a hypothesis can be objectively

tested and potentially disproven through empirical evidence.

Positive

final characteristic of a testable hypothesis is that it must make a positive statement about the existence of something, usually the existence of a difference or the existence of a treatment effect

theories

In attempting to explain and predict behavior, scientists and philosophers often develop _____ that contain hypothetical mechanisms and intangible elements.

Theory

a set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a

particular behaviour.

Constructs

are hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory

operationalizing a construct.

Researchers often refer to the process of using an operational definition

as ________ a ________.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV)

Variable that the experimenter

intentionally manipulates/selects to be

included in the study

DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV)

- Outcome the experimenter tries to

explain.

- Particular behaviour we expect to change because of the experimental treatments

Scatter Plot

➢ The two scores for each person are represented as a single point, with the horizontal position of the point determined by one score and the vertical position determined by the second score.

➢ Often, the consistency of a relationship is determined by computing a correlation between two measurements

VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT

The degree to which the measurement process measures the variable that it claims to measure

Face Validity

An unscientific form of validity demonstrated when a measurement procedure superficially appears to measure what it claims.

Content Validity

Refers to the extent to which a test, survey or measurement tool covers the entire range of relevant content or behaviors it is intended to assess.

Concurrent Validity

Demonstrated when scores obtained from a new measure are directly related to scores obtained from an established measure of the same variable.

Predictive Validity

Demonstrated when scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behavior according to a theory.

Construct Validity

- Requires that the scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself. - It is based on many research studies that use the same measurement procedure and grows gradually as each new study contributes more evidence

Convergent Validity

demonstrated by a strong relationship between the scores obtained from two (or more) different methods of measuring the same construct.

Divergent Validity

demonstrated by showing little or no relationship between the measurements of two different

constructs.

Observer error

the individual who makes the measurements can introduce simple human error into the measurement process especially when the measurement involves a degree of human judgement.

Environmental changes

there are small changes in the human environment from one measurement to another, and these small changes can influence the measurements.

Participant changes

the participant can change between

measurements

Test-retest Reliability

Established by comparing the scores obtained from two successive measurements of the same individuals and calculating a correlation between the two sets of scores.

Parallel-forms of Reliability

When different versions of the instrument are used for the test and the retest.

Simultaneous Measurements

When measurements are obtained by direct observations of behaviors, it is common to use two or more separate observers who simultaneously record measurements.

Inter-rater reliability

the degree of agreement between two observers

who simultaneously record measurements of behaviors.

Internal Consistency

No single item or question is sufficient to provide a complete measure of the construct.

Split-half Reliability

obtained by splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half, computing a separate score for each half, and then calculating the degree of consistency between the two scores for a group of participants