AP US Government Unit 3 Vocab

Franchise / Suffrage

The legal right to vote.

26th Amendment

1971 - This lowered the minimum voting age from 21 to 18. It was largely a response to the Vietnam War—"old enough to fight, old enough to vote".

24th Amendment

1964 - Abolished poll taxes, which were used to disenfranchise low-income voters, particularly Black Americans in the South.

Voter Turnout

This is the percentage of eligible voters who actually cast a ballot in an election. The U.S. generally has lower turnout compared to other Western democracies, and the levels vary significantly depending on the type of election ( more for prez election than mid terms).

Political Efficacy

This is a citizen’s belief that they understand and can influence political affairs. It is a psychological factor that directly impacts whether an individual chooses to participate in the democratic process.

Political Mobilization

the efforts by political parties, interest groups, or candidates to encourage citizens to participate in the political process and increase voter turnout.

Rational Choice Voting

This is voting behavior characterized by voting for the candidate which seems to be in their own best interest. Ex. “which candidate will help my bank account and my specific life style the most?”

Policy Voting

This is a voting behavior that occurs when an individual bases their decision on a candidate's specific stance on a particular policy issue. Also called Issue Voting.

Retrospective Voting

A model of voter behavior where a citizen decides how to vote by looking back at the recent past to see if the party or candidate in power has done a good job.

Prospective Voting

A model of voter behavior where a citizen makes their choice based on how they think a candidate or party will perform in the future

Referendum

This is a form of direct democracy where citizens vote directly on a proposed law or constitutional amendment, rather than voting on representatives to make the decision for them.

Party Line Voting

This occurs when a voter supports every candidate from one specific political party for all public offices on the ballot. Also called Straight- Ticket voting.

Voter Registration

Amendments such as 15th, 19th, and 26th expand who can vote (all races, women, over 18 years old). The 24th amendment barred poll taxes. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 ended literacy tests and authorized federal examiners to register voters in areas with a history of discrimination. The Motor Voter Act allows people to be registered to vote when they apply for a new drivers license or renew one.

SAVE America Act: A recent legislative push requiring documentary proof of citizenship to register for federal elections. Proponents argue it ensures election integrity; critics argue it creates a barrier for the 9–11% of eligible voters who don't have easy access to birth certificates or passports.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act

2002 - Before 2002, the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) had a loophole: direct donated to campaigns (hard money) was strictly limited, unregulated donations to parties for “party building” activities like voting drives was not prohibited and used to bypass the donation limits. This act banned the “soft money” donations. It included requiring candidates to state “I am [name] and I approve this message” at the end of political ads. It also prohibited corporations and unions from funding ads that included a candidates name within 30 days of a primary or 60 days before a general election.

Federal Election Campaign Act

1971 - This was meant to provide transparency and limit the power of wealthy donors. It established three things that still define elections in 2026:

• Disclosure: Candidates must publicly report who gave them money and how they spent it

• Limits on Contributions: It set a ceiling on how much an individual or a Political Action Committee (PAC) could give directly to a candidate (Hard Money)

• Created the Federal Election Committee: An independent regulatory agency tasked with enforcing election laws and monitoring donation data

Buckley v. Valeo

James Buckley argued that the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 and the governments limit of campaign spending was unconstitutional because it violated the 1st amendments protection of free speech. The court ended up equating money with speech, and though it upheld limits on how much an individual or political action committees (PAC) gives to a candidate, the restrictions were lifted on how much money the party or candidate can spend on the campaign.

Federal Election Commission

an independent regulatory agency created by Congress in 1975 to enforce the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA).

Electoral College

The unique system used to elect the President and Vice President in the US. It uses a “winner takes all” system in which the number of votes a state gets is determined by the # of representatives in the house + 2 senators. There are 538 total votes and a candidate needs 270 to win. The representatives per state is reapportioned every 10 years based on data from the census (some states gain votes, others lose them).

Hard Money

This is regulated, disclosed money that is given directly to a candidates campaign.

Soft Money

Unregulated donations to political campaigns for “party building”. It was a big loophole until it was banned by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002.

Political Action Committee

A regulated organization that pools voluntary contributions from members, employees, or stockholders to support or oppose political candidates, parties, or legislation. They represent business, labor, or ideological interests.

Super PACs

A U.S. political committee that can raise and spend unlimited sums of money from individuals, unions, and corporations to advocate for or against federal candidates. They cannot donate directly or coordinate directly with candidate campaigns.

Citizens United v FEC

The case began when a conservative non-profit group, Citizens United, produced Hillary: The Movie, a documentary critical of then-Senator Hillary Clinton. They wanted to aired it via video-on-demand within 30 days of the 2008 primary. The Federal Election Commission blocked the movie, arguing it was a giant campaign ad funded by corporate money. The court ruled in favor of Citizens United, saying that free speech is protected for corporations as well as people. This ruling resulted in the Super PAC, allowing unlimited funding for PACs.

Critical Elections

A specific type of election that marks a significant, long-term shift in the voting patterns and party loyalties of the American electorate. They are almost always preceded or triggered by a major social or economic event (e.g., the Great Depression). There is usually party realignment: A large group of voters permanently switches their allegiance from one party to another.

Divided Government

This occurs when the presidency is controlled by one party while at least one house of Congress (the House of Representatives or the Senate) is controlled by the opposing party.

Party Dealignment

This is a trend where a large portion of the electorate abandons its previous partisan affiliation without developing a new one to replace it.

Characteristics of this include:

• More independent voters

• Split ticket voting (choosing candidates from different parties on the same ballot)

• Divided government: one party controls Congress + House and the other party controls white house / president.

Primary

This is the first stage of the election cycle, where political parties select their official candidate to run in the general election. If it is “closed” only registered members of the party can vote. If it is “open”, any registered voter can participate.

Caucus

Unlike the “in and out” voting process of primaries, participants don't just vote in a BLANK; they listen to speeches from supporters of various candidates, debate the party platform, and then cast their vote (sometimes by a show of hands or by physically moving to different corners of the room).

Net Neutrality

is the principle that Internet Service Providers (ISPs)—like Comcast, AT&T, and Verizon—must treat all data on the internet equally. They should not be allowed to block specific websites, slow down ("throttle") certain services, or charge companies for "fast lanes."

Obama/Biden Eras: Generally pro (Title II, Internet is a “Common Carrier”): If the internet is a Title II service, the FCC can regulate it like a public utility (like water or electricity). This gives the FCC the authority to enforce net neutrality rules.

Trump Era: Generally anti (Title I, Internet is a “Information Service”): If the internet is a Title I service, the FCC has very little power to regulate it. It is treated like a library or a private club

Iron Triangle

This is a term used to describe a powerful, three-way relationship in American politics that can dominate a specific area of policy-making. It consists of Congressional Committees, Federal Agencies (the bureaucracy), and Interest Groups.

Potential Group

This consists of all the people who share a common interest and could, in theory, benefit from a specific policy change. They are usually large, unorganized, and geographically dispersed.

Example: All consumers in the United States. While every consumer wants lower prices and safer products, they don't necessarily belong to an organization that fights for those things.

Actual Group

This is the part of the potential group that actually joins an organization, pays dues, and actively lobbies for their interests. They are smaller, highly organized, and focused. These groups have the resources (money and members) to exert real pressure on the "Iron Triangle".

Example: Members of the AARP (American Association of Retired Persons) or the National Rifle Association (NRA).

Amicus Curiae Briefs

This is a legal document filed by someone who is not a direct party to a case but has a strong interest in the subject matter. These are a key way that actual groups can expert influence on the judicial branch since they can’t lobby judges the same way they lobby Congress.

Class Action Lawsuits

This lets a few people sue on behalf of a large group with similar claims against the same defendant, making it possible to address widespread harm efficiently,

Collective Good

Something of value that benefits everyone from the potential group, regardless of weather they helped provide it or not. Ex. clean air, infrastructure like roads and highways, public safety like a neighborhood watch program.

Electioneering

This is the strategy of aiding candidates financially and mobilizing group members to support them.

Free-Rider Problem

It occurs when individuals realize they can enjoy the benefits of a group's success without actually contributing to the effort. It is the primary reason why many potential groups (millions of people with a shared interest) never become actual groups (organized, funded organizations).

Olson’s Law of Large Groups

This states that the larger a group is, the further it will fall short of providing an optimal amount of a collective good. In simpler terms: small groups are much better at organizing and getting what they want than large groups are.

Right-to-work law

These prohibit union security agreements that require employees to join or pay dues to a union as a condition of employment.

Selective Benefits

These are goods that a group can restrict to those who actually join and pay. If you don't pay, you don't get the "swag," the discounts, or the access. It is the primary solution to the free-rider problem. It explains how "Actual Groups" (like the AARP or the NRA) convince people to stop being "Potential" members and start paying dues.

Single-issue groups

This is an interest group that has a narrow interest, dislikes compromise, and often draws membership from people new to politics.

Because they focus on one specific, highly emotional topic, they operate differently than broad-interest groups like the Chamber of Commerce.

Public interest groups

These are organizations that seek a collective good. They claim to lobby for the benefit of the entire "Potential Group" of society (e.g., all consumers, all breathers of air, or all voters).

Economic interest group

Their primary goal is to protect the financial well-being of their members (corporations, labor unions, professional individuals).

Government interest group

This is a unique category where one level of government lobbies another level of government. While most interest groups represent private citizens or businesses, these groups represent public officials (like mayors, governors, or police chiefs) who want to influence federal policy and secure more funding for their local jurisdictions.

“Horse Race” Journalism

News platforms tend to focus on who is "winning" or "losing" in the polls (the race) rather than the actual substance of the candidates' platforms.

Mass Media

This is the process by which fewer and fewer individuals or organizations control increasing shares of the mass media.

Media Consolidation

This is the process by which fewer and fewer individuals or organizations control increasing shares of the mass media.

Bandwagon Effect

This is a psychological phenomenon where people support a candidate or a policy simply because they see that others are doing so. It is a form of "herd mentality" that is heavily amplified by mass media and polling.

Partisan Bias

This is the tendency of media outlets to view and report news through a specific ideological lens—typically favoring either the Democratic (liberal) or Republican (conservative) perspective.

Federal Communications Commission

This is an independent regulatory agency of the federal government responsible for regulating interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable.

Freedom of Information Act

Signed into law in 1966, this is a federal statute that allows any person to request access to records from any federal agency.