Chapter 8: Thinking

What is analogical representation?

A mental representation that directly corresponds to the physical characteristics of an object.

What is symbolic representation?

A mental representation that uses arbitrary symbols (like words or numbers) without resembling the object.

Example of symbolic representation in language?

 "Ben throws the ball" or "The ball is thrown by Ben."

What is problem solving?

Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal.

What is decision making?

 A cognitive process that results in selecting a course of action or belief from several options.

 First step in solving a problem effectively?

Build an analogical representation of the problem.

What is the Buddhist monk problem?

 A thought experiment about a monk ascending and descending a mountain, demonstrating problem representation.

 Productive way to represent the Buddhist monk problem?

Imagine two monks starting at opposite ends at the same time, crossing paths.

Unproductive way to represent the Buddhist monk problem?

 Overcomplicating it using speed/distance calculations.

Why is problem representation important?

The way a problem is represented affects how easily it can be solved.

What did Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser (1981) study?

Differences in how experts and novices represent physics problems.

 How do novices categorize problems?

By surface features, like objects mentioned (e.g., block on inclined plane).

How do experts categorize problems?

By deep structure, such as underlying physics principles.

What is the key skill of an expert in problem solving?

Quickly matching external events to internal models.

Are experts faster at sorting problems?

No, they take longer because they analyze deeply before solving.

 What reasoning begins with premises assumed to be true?

Deductive reasoning.

When is a conclusion valid in deductive reasoning?

When it follows logically from premises, regardless of truth.

Two types of deductive reasoning?

Syllogism and conditional reasoning.

What is a syllogism?

A three-part argument: two premises and a conclusion.

 Example of syllogism in abstract form?

All A are B; All B are C; Therefore, all A are C.

Example of syllogism in concrete form?

All poodles are dogs; All dogs are animals; Therefore, all poodles are animals.

What tool helps test syllogism validity?

Venn diagrams.

Can a valid conclusion be empirically false?

Yes, if it logically follows from false premises.

Example of valid but empirically false conclusion?

All animals are wild; All poodles are animals; Therefore, all poodles are wild.

What is an invalid syllogism?

Premises are true, but the conclusion does not necessarily follow.

Example of invalid syllogism?

All A are B; Some B are C; Therefore, some A are C.

How can Venn diagrams reveal invalid conclusions?

By showing multiple possible relationships between sets.

Why are people better at concrete reasoning?

Concrete examples align with real-world knowledge, making logic easier to see.

Example of concrete syllogism reasoning?

 All polar bears are animals; Some animals are white; Therefore, some polar bears are white (empirically true)

What is conditional reasoning?

Reasoning that uses "If P then Q" structures to determine conclusions.

What is modus ponens?

Affirming the antecedent: If P then Q; P is true → Q is true.

What is modus tollens?

Denying the consequent: If P then Q; Q is false → P is false.

What is affirming the consequent?

Assuming P is true because Q is true; not logically valid.

What is denying the antecedent?

Assuming Q is false because P is false; not logically valid.

Example of concrete conditional reasoning?

If you heat ice, it melts. You heat ice → it melts (valid modus ponens).

Example where no valid conclusion can be drawn?

If you heat ice, it melts. The ice melts → can’t conclude you heated it.

What is the Wason selection task?

A task where you choose cards to test "If vowel, then even number"; correct cards: vowel and odd number

What bias does Wason task demonstrate?

Confirmation bias—people seek confirming evidence.

Are people better at conditional reasoning in abstract or concrete cases?

Concrete cases (e.g., checking ages of people drinking beer).

What error is confusing "If P then Q" with "If Q then P"?

Form error.

What is a search error in reasoning?

Tendency to look only for positive evidence.

What is Type I processing?

Fast, automatic, heuristic-driven thinking needing little attention.

What is Type II processing?

Slow, controlled, attention-demanding reasoning.

 What is a heuristic?

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that usually works but can lead to errors.

What is the representativeness heuristic?

Judging probability by similarity to a prototype.

Example of representativeness heuristic?

Thinking HHHTTT is more likely than HHHHHH in coin flips, though both are equally probable.

What is the gambler’s fallacy?

Believing future independent events are influenced by past ones (e.g., tails is "due" after heads)

What is base rate neglect?

 Ignoring general statistical information in favor of specific details.

 Example of base rate neglect?

Assuming Tom studies computer science because of a stereotype despite more students in humanities.

Why do more graduate students tend to be first-born?

Because there are more first-borns in the population.

Why are more runners thrown out at first base than second?

There are more runners on first base.

Why do more hotel fires start on the first 10 floors?

Because many hotels don't have higher floors.

What is the availability heuristic?

Judging frequency or probability based on how easily examples come to mind.

Example of availability heuristic?

Believing plane travel is less safe than car travel due to vivid plane crash memories.

What factors influence availability heuristic?

Recency, familiarity, salience/vividness.

How does salience affect risk perception?

Vivid events (e.g., air crashes) make people overestimate risk.

What is confirmation bias?

Seeking and interpreting information that confirms existing beliefs.

Example of confirmation bias in diagnosis?

Doctors selecting evidence that supports their initial diagnosis while ignoring contradictory info

How does confirmation bias affect perception of group differences?

People focus on evidence that supports stereotypes (e.g., psychological problems in gay people) and ignore contrary data.

What did the study on medical students and psychiatrists show about confirmation bias?

Many chose info that supported their initial diagnosis rather than testing alternatives.

How does representativeness heuristic work?

Judging likelihood by similarity of example to category prototype.

How does availability heuristic work?

Judging frequency based on ease of recalling examples.

Key difference between representativeness and availability heuristics?

Representativeness: match to prototype; availability: ease of recall.

What influences availability heuristic judgments?

Recency, frequency of exposure, vividness of examples.

What is anchoring bias?

Overreliance on the first piece of information when making decisions.

Example of anchoring bias in estimating dates?

Estimates of telephone invention date are biased by the initial date presented (e.g., 1850 vs 1920).

What is the framing effect?

Decision-making influenced by how information is presented.

Example of framing effect in advertising?

"90% fat free" vs "10% fat" influences perception despite identical meaning.

Why do people underestimate base rates in lung cancer example?

They focus on small group representation rather than overall rates.

What does the lung cancer example illustrate?

Smokers are overrepresented among lung cancer patients relative to their population size.

How does vividness distort risk estimates?

Rare but vivid events (e.g., air crashes) inflate perceived risk.

Example of availability bias in car models?

Overestimating Chevrolets vs Cadillacs based on visibility on the street.

Why are Cadillacs underestimated in frequency?

They are seen less often because they are stored, not driven daily.

How can availability bias influence beliefs about social groups?

Exposure to biased examples strengthens stereotypes (e.g., welfare cheats).

What is the gambler’s fallacy linked to?

Misuse of representativeness heuristic — expecting outcomes to balance out in short term.

What is positive evidence search?

Seeking info that confirms, rather than refutes, a hypothesis (confirmation bias).

What motivates people to seek negative evidence?

Situations involving skepticism, like detecting rule violations.

What did the beer-drinking age card task show?

People better apply conditional reasoning when problem involves detecting illegal behavior.

How accurate are people at modus ponens?

Very accurate (near 100%) in both abstract and concrete forms.

How accurate are people at modus tollens in abstract cases?

Less accurate (57-77%) than with concrete examples.

How does framing influence risk perception?

Positive vs negative wording changes decisions (e.g., gain vs loss framing).

How can confirmation bias affect medical diagnosis?

Leads to selective info gathering, risking wrong conclusions.

What does dual-process theory propose?

That Type I and Type II processes guide reasoning differently — fast/automatic vs slow/controlled.

Example of Type I processing?

Stereotyping or using a heuristic.

Example of Type II processing?

Careful evaluation of exceptions to a rule.

What is a common form error in conditional reasoning?

Assuming "If P then Q" means "If Q then P."

What triggers confirmation bias in social judgment?

 Desire to uphold prior beliefs or stereotypes.

What is the highlighting effect in framing?

 Emphasizing certain features to guide decisions.

What does the availability heuristic summary emphasize?

People estimate frequency based on how easily examples come to mind; influenced by recency, familiarity, and salience.

When is availability heuristic accurate?

 When accessible examples genuinely reflect real frequency.

What is the effect of vivid rare events on decision-making?

They cause people to overestimate the frequency or risk of those events.

What is an anchor in decision-making?

The initial piece of information that biases subsequent judgments.

Example of anchoring bias in guessing a date?

People's guesses on telephone invention year differ depending on if anchor was 1850 or 1920.

What is the core of the framing effect?

The way information is presented changes perception and choice, even if the facts are identical.

Example of framing in consumer decisions?

A "90% fat free" label is perceived more positively than "10% fat."

How does the framing effect relate to highlighting?

It guides focus onto particular aspects (e.g., gains vs losses).

What does the telephone anchoring study show?

People's estimates were biased toward the initial anchor provided.

Why do people fall for the gambler’s fallacy?

They wrongly expect random events to "balance out" in the short term.

When are people more likely to seek negative evidence?

When motivated by skepticism, such as enforcing rules.

What key concept explains why people turn over wrong cards in Wason's task?

Confirmation bias — focus on confirming rather than falsifying the rule.