Study Guide for ANTH 301: Human Evaluation - Exam 1

Biological Anthropology

The study of human biology within the framework of evolution, including genetics, osteology, and primatology.

Non-primate Behavior and Ecology

The study of behavior and ecology of non-primate species to understand evolutionary processes

Human Osteology

The study of human bones to understand health, diet, and evolutionary changes.

Functional Morphology

  The study of the relationship between the structure of an organism and its function.

Human Genetics

Human Biology

The study of the biological aspects of humans, including growth, development, and physiological adaptations.

Paleopathology

  The study of ancient diseases and injuries in human skeletal remains.

Paleoanthropology:

The study of human origins and evolution through fossil records and artifacts.

Theory

A set of principles or ideas that explain a phenomenon, based on empirical evidence and reasoning.

Scientific Method

A systematic approach to research involving observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and conclusion.

Paleontology

   The study of prehistoric life through fossils.

Paleoecology

The study of ecosystems of the past through fossils and other evidence.

Lithic Archaeology

The study of stone tools and artifacts to understand early human technology and behavior.

Paleoanthropological Methods

Techniques used to study human ancestors, including excavation, dating methods, and comparative analysis.

Taphonomy

The study of the processes affecting the remains of organisms from death to discovery.

Geology

The study of Earth's physical structure and substance, which helps in understanding the context of fossil discoveries.

Relative Dating

Techniques used to determine the age of fossils and artifacts relative to one another.

Absolute Dating

Techniques used to determine the exact age of fossils and artifacts.

Carbon Dating

A method for dating organic materials by measuring the decay of carbon isotopes.

Stratigraphy

The analysis of layered sedimentary deposits to establish the relative ages of fossils and artifacts.

Law of Superposition

A principle stating that in undisturbed layers of rock, the oldest layers are at the bottom.

Potassium/Argon and Argon/Argon Dating

Radiometric dating methods used to date volcanic rocks and ash layers.

Tuff/Tephra

Volcanic ash layers used for dating geological and archaeological sites.

Parent/Daughter Isotope

Terms used in radiometric dating where the parent isotope decays into a daughter isotope over time.

Natural Selection

The process where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Evolutionary Thinkers

Key figures in the development of evolutionary theory, including Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.

Fitness

The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment.

Adaptation

 A trait that enhances an organism's ability to survive and reproduce.

Neo-Darwinian Evolution

The modern synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Mendelian genetics.

Directional/Stabilizing Selection

Types of natural selection; directional favors one extreme phenotype, while stabilizing favors intermediate phenotypes.

Mutation

A change in the DNA sequence that can lead to new traits.

Gene Flow

The transfer of genetic material between populations.

Genetic Drift

Random changes in allele frequencies within a population due to chance.

Founder Effect

A type of genetic drift that occurs when a new population is established by a small group of individuals.

Bottlenecking

A sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events or other pressures, leading to reduced genetic diversity.

Hierarchical Classification

A system of organizing organisms into nested groups based on their similarities and evolutionary relationships.

Typological Species Concept (Linnaeus)

  Classification based on fixed types or representative individuals of a species.

Biological Species Concept (Mayr)

A species is a group of interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.

Pre-mating Isolating Mechanisms

Mechanisms that prevent mating between species, such as temporal or ecological isolation.

Post-mating Isolating Mechanisms

Mechanisms that prevent the successful reproduction after mating, such as hybrid inviability or sterility.

Reproductive Isolation

Mechanisms that prevent different species from interbreeding.

Allopatric Speciation

The formation of new species through geographic isolation.

Evolutionary Species Concept (Simpson)

Defines species based on evolutionary lineages.

Morphological Species Concept (Cartmill & Smith)

Defines species based on physical characteristics.

Systematics

The study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships.

Phylogeny

The evolutionary history and relationships among organisms.

Taxon/Taxa

A group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms that form a unit.

Clade

A group of organisms that includes a single ancestor and all its descendants.

Monophyletic Group

A group that consists of a single ancestor and all its descendants.

Symplesiomorphy

A shared ancestral trait.

Synapomorphy

A shared derived trait that defines a clade.

Autapomorphy

A derived trait unique to a single taxon.

Homoplasy

Similar traits that evolve independently in different lineages.

Homology

Traits inherited from a common ancestor.

Analogy

Traits that are similar due to convergent evolution rather than common ancestry.

Convergent Evolution

The evolution of similar traits in unrelated lineages due to similar selective pressures.

Parsimony

The principle that the simplest explanation, with the fewest assumptions, is preferred.

Primates

The order of mammals that includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, and apes, characterized by large brains, forward-facing eyes, and grasping hands.

Strepsirhines

A suborder of primates that includes lemurs and lorises, characterized by a more developed sense of smell and a post-orbital bar rather than complete closure.

Lemurs/Lorises

Lemurs are found in Madagascar, and lorises are found in Africa and Asia. Both are strepsirhines with adaptations for nocturnal and arboreal life.

Haplorhines

A suborder of primates that includes tarsiers, monkeys, and apes, characterized by a greater emphasis on vision and a post-orbital closure

Tarsiers

Small primates found in Southeast Asia, known for their large eyes and unique adaptations for nocturnal life. They are haplorhines and are considered a bridge between strepsirhines and higher primates.

Platyrrhines[1]  (New World Monkeys)

  Monkeys found in South and Central America, characterized by broad, outward-facing nostrils.

Catarrhines

A suborder of primates that includes both Old World monkeys and apes. They are characterized by narrow, downward-facing nostrils.

Cercopithecoids (Old World Monkeys)

  Monkeys found in Africa and Asia, including baboons and macaques, characterized by their bilophodont molars.

Hominoids (Apes)

A superfamily that includes gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans. They are characterized by larger brains relative to body size and lack of a tail.

Post-orbital Bar/Closure

The bony structure around the eye socket. Strepsirhines have a post-orbital bar, while haplorhines have a post-orbital closure, which provides better protection for the eyes.

Grasping Hands/Nails

Primates have grasping hands with opposable thumbs and flat nails instead of claws, aiding in climbing and manipulation of objects.

Petrosal/Auditory Bulla

The petrosal bone encases the inner ear, while the auditory bulla is a bony structure that houses the middle ear. Strepsirhines have a separate auditory bulla, while haplorhines have a fused petrosal.

Convergent Orbits

Forward-facing eyes that provide binocular vision and depth perception, typical of higher primates

Reduced Olfaction

Haplorhines have a reduced sense of smell compared to strepsirhines, reflecting a shift towards enhanced vision.

Strepsirhine/Haplorhine Noses

Strepsirhines have a more protruding nose with a split in the upper lip (rhinarium), while haplorhines have flatter noses with less emphasis on smell.

Tooth Comb

A dental adaptation in strepsirhines, where the lower incisors are closely spaced and used for grooming.

Bicornuate/Unicornuate Uterus, Nipple Number

Strepsirhines typically have a bicornuate uterus (two separate uterine horns) and multiple nipples, while haplorhines generally have a unicornuate uterus (single uterine chamber) and fewer nipples.

Tapetum Lucidum

A reflective layer behind the retina in nocturnal primates that enhances night vision.

Dental Formula

The number and types of teeth in one quadrant of the mouth, used to identify primate species.

Bilophodont Molars/Y-5 Molars

Tooth patterns; bilophodont molars are characteristic of Old World monkeys with two ridges, while Y-5 molars are typical of apes with a Y-shaped cusp pattern.

What Behaviors Can Be Interpreted from the Fossil Record?

Behaviors such as feeding, locomotion, and social interactions can be inferred from fossilized bones and artifacts through anatomical analysis and context.

How Fossilization Works:

Fossilization occurs when an organism's remains are buried under sediment, and minerals gradually replace organic material, preserving the shape of the organism.

Taphonomy and How It Informs About the Past:

●    : Taphonomy is the study of how organisms decay and become fossilized. It helps understand the conditions that led to the preservation of fossils and the interpretation of the past environments and behaviors.

Depositional Environments and How They Influence Fossilization:

Fossilization is more likely to occur in environments that facilitate rapid burial and low decomposition rates, such as riverbeds, lakes, and volcanic ash deposits.

How Isotopes and Their Half-lives Are Used in Absolute Dating:

Isotopes are used to date fossils by measuring the ratio of parent to daughter isotopes and calculating the age based on known decay rates.

General Trends in Environmental Change in Africa During Evolution of Our Ancestors:

Changes such as shifts from forested to savanna environments influenced the evolution of early hominins and their adaptations.

How Evolutionary Mechanisms Affect Allele Frequencies:

Mechanisms like natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation change allele frequencies in populations over time.

How Individuals, Populations, Subspecies, Species, and Genera Relate to Each Other and to Gene Exchange:

Individuals are part of populations, which can be divided into subspecies and species. Gene exchange occurs within populations and between species through various mechanisms.

The Types of Isolating Mechanisms and How They Are Related to the BSC:

Pre-mating and post-mating isolating mechanisms prevent interbreeding between species, affecting their classification under the Biological Species Concept (BSC).

How Characters, Character Polarity, and Outgroups Are Used to Reconstruct Phylogeny:

Characters (traits) are used to determine evolutionary relationships. Outgroups help establish the polarity (ancestral vs. derived state) of traits for reconstructing phylogenetic trees.

How Characters Are Used to Group Primates, and Why Humans Are Included in Primates/Haplorhines/Catarrhines/Hominoids:

Characters such as dental patterns, skeletal features, and genetic data group primates. Humans share traits with haplorhines, catarrhines, and hominoids, placing us within these groups.

How to Look at a Character Matrix and Interpret Relationships:

A character matrix displays traits for different taxa. By analyzing similarities and differences, one can infer evolutionary relationships and construct phylogenetic trees.