15.2 + 15.3

15.2 - Conduction portion of the Repiaratory tract ( Nose, Pharynx, Larynx, Bronchi, Larger Bonchioles) ....... 15.3 - respiratory portion of the respiratory tract (smaller bronchioles & alveoli in lungs) / cavities surrounding lungs

Where does the does air outside travel into the body through the nose first?

1. Nasal cavity : Opening of external nares

   1. Nostrills (external nares) : air enters here

Nasal Vestibule

Space enclosed in flexible nose tissue

What is Nose hair?

• From the epithelium of the vestibules

• It gaurds the nasal Cavity from particles

What makes the lateral and superior walls of the nasal cavity?

1. Maxillary Bones

2. Nasal Bones

3. Frontal Bones

4. Ethmoid Bones

5. Sphenoid Bones

Nasal Septum

• Divides the Nasal Cavity into L and R Sides

• Anterior Portion is formed by Hyaline Cartilage

What is the Hard palate of the Nasal Cavity?

• Forms its floor

• Made by the Palatine and Maxillary Bone

What is the Soft palate of the Nasal Cavity?

• it is behind the Hard Palate : underlies the nasopharynx

• *nasal cavity opens to the nasopharynx

What Conchae Projects into the Nasal Septum

• Superior, Middle, And Inferiornasal Conchae

• Lateral Walls of Caval Cavity

What produces Muscus?

Paranasal Sinuses

(frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, parietal, maxillary, and palatine bones)

What produces Tears?

Nasolacrimal Duct

What do we get runny noses?

• exposure to noxious vapors, lotta dust/debris/pathogens/allergens

  • Causes rapid increase of mucus

What is the Pharynx?

Your Throat

• a Chmaber part of the digestive and respiratory systems

• From the internal nares, larynx entrance, to the esophagus

What are the 3 subdivisions of the Pharynx?

1. Nasopharynx

2. Oropharynx

3. Laryngopharynx

What is the Nasopharynx?

• connects to teh nasal cavity by internal nares and extends to the posterior edges of the soft palate

• Lined by respiratory epithelium

  • ** At its posterior wall, there are pharyngeal tonsils

  • ** has entrances to auditory tubes

What is the oropharynx?

• Part of the soft palate of the nasal cavity

• it’s the base of th etounge at the hyoid bone

  • ** Lateral walls contains palatine tonsils

What is the Laryngopharynx?

• It is fromt he “level” of the hyoid bone to the esophagus entrance

What parts of the Pharynx is lined by STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM?

1. Oropharynx

2. Laryngopharynx

Why is the Oropharynx Laryngopharynx lined by _____ ?

• “Stratified Squamous Epithelium“

Reasons:

1. Allows mechanical abrasion resistance

2. Resists chemical attack

3. Defends againt pathogenic invasions

What is the Larynx?

Your Voice box

• air from pharynx travels here (through the glottis)

What is the Glottis?

• a narrow opening whic leads air into the Larynx

What makes up the Larynx?

1. 9 cartilages

2. Ligaments

3. Skeletal Muscles (stabalizes cartilages)

What are the 3 large cartilages of the Larynx?

1. Epiglottis

2. Thyroid

3. Cricoid

What is the Epiglottis cartilage?

• Shoehorn shaped

• Helps with swallowing : folds back on the glottis to prevent liquid/substances into the respiratory tract

• projects above the glottis

What is the Thyroid cartilage?

• Shield Shaped

• ***its ridges forms the adam’s apple

• Forms a big chunck of the anterior and lateral surfaces of the larynx

What is the Cricoid cartilage?

• Ring shaped

• Supports the larynx posteriorly

• it is inferior to the thyroid cartilage

What are the 3 smaller Cartilages of the Larynx?

1. Arythenoid

2. Corniculate

3. Cuneiform

** ALL SUPPORTED BY THE CRICOID CARTILAGE

What are the Ligaments of the Larynx?

1. False vocal Chords

2. True Vocal Chords

• They are enclosed by epithelium fold and this extends through the larynx (between the thyroid cartilage and smaller cartilages)

What reduces the size of the glottis?

• Epithelium folds that are enclosing the ligaments of the larynx

What are the False Vocal Chords?

• Ligaments of the UPPER PAIR

• Inelastic

• protects the more delicate folds

What are the True Vocal Chords?

• Ligements of the LOWER FOLDS

• Elastic

• Involved with making sounds

** extands between th ethroid cartilage and arytenoid cartilage

Why does the “coughing reflex” happen?

• When Food/liquid touches the vocal chords

Steps of the reflex

1. Glottis shuts close

2. Abdomen Muscles/Chest muscles contract = compresses lungs

3. Glottis opens suddenly

4. Air blast through

5. PUSHES OBJECTS OUT!!! :3

What air goes through the glottis… does it make the vocal chords vibrate?

• yes, it makes sound waves

What does the pitch of sound depend on?

1. Diameter..

2. Length..

3. Tension..

…OF THE VOCAL CHORDS

What does the diameter and length of the vocal chords relate to?

Larynx size!

• EX: Adams apple → LOW sound (bigger larynx)

• Ex: kiddos larynx → high-ish sound (smaller larynx)

What is the tension of the larynx controled by?

• small skeletal muscles that move arytenoid cartilages

What are other body parts that help amplify/resonate/create your voice (and make it unique)?

1. Pharynx

2. Oral/Nasal Cavity

3. Paranasal Sinuses

4. Tounge, Lips, Cheeks → VOLUNTARY MOTIONS

What is the Trachea?

Your Windpipe

• It’s a TOUGH FLEXIBLE TUBE that branches into the L&R Primary Bronchi

start : 6th cervical vertebra (attaches to the cricoid cartilage)

end : 5th thoracic vartebra = aka the MEDIASTINUM

What supports the trachea walls? What is it shaped like?

• C- shaped

• 15-20 tracheal cartilages

How does the 15-20 tracheal cartilages support the trachea walls?

1. Stiffens the walls

   • Prevents overexpansion

   • Prevents collapse when pressure changes happen

What does the C-shape of the tracheal cartilages do?

• its open portion - allows the posterior tracheal wall to distort

  • allows big chugus food down the esophagus

• the opening faces the posterior wall - towards the esophagus

What do the ends of the tracheal cartilages connect to?

• elastic ligament

• trachealis muscle (a band of smooth muscle)

What adjusts the trachea’s Diameter automatically?

• trachealis muscles

• sympathic stimulation = increases the trachea’s diameter and can move air

What are the different “stages” of the Bronchi?

• Primary Bronchi = L & R → enters lungs

• Seocndary Bronchi = branched from the Primary Bronchi → enters lung’s lobes

• Tertiary = branched from Secondary Bronchi → in the lungs (?)/def smaller

What is the Primary L&R Bronchi?

• its from the mediastinum

• Resembles trachea walls

  • ciliated epithelium

  • c-shaped cartilage rings

What Primary bronchi is larger? Left or Right?

Right bronchi!

• it’s larger and decends into the lungs at a steeper angel than L bronchi

  • (L bronchi is sharing space with the heart)

• More foreign objects go to the Right Bronchi too - unfortunately

What is the bronchial tree?

• When the primary Bronchi breaks into smaller airways

What does the secondary Brochi split into?

• It is pretty massive in size → gets smaller as it branches out

9-10 tertiary bronchi

What is the tertiary bronchi?

• Last branches of the bronchi

• provides air to the SPECFIC PARTS OF THE LUNGS

  • AKA the Bronchopulmonary segment

What are the Brochioles?

• When Bronchi diameters reach 1mm + Cartilage disppears completely

What are the walls of the bronchioles dominated by?

• Smooth Muscle tissue (movement is automatic)

Bronchioles vs Alveoli

• Bronchioles = Respiratory = the airway plumbing + conducts air,

• Alveoli = Cardiovasular = the interface/conneciton with blood for gas exchange

Bronchodilation is what?

• when sympatic activation leads to relaxation/dilation of smooth muscles in bronchial walls

• Airway passages enlarges

Bronchonconstriction is what?

• when sympatic activation leads to contraction of smooth muscles in bronchial walls

• Airway passages shrinks

What happens when Bronchonconstriction is extreme?

• extreme contriction of air passageways = breathing is difficult/impossible

occurance : allergic reations/asthma

• Conditions which inflames bronchioles

What is Cystic Fibrosis?

• A defect of respiratory muscosa (inherited) = makes it more dense/viscous

• mucus transport stops and blocks small respiratory passageways

• Normal respi. defences stop = more bacteiral infections

  • leads to a lot of deaths

• Could lead to heart failure

What is the defectiv gene in Cystic Fibrosis?

Chromosome 7

Clinical note - Tracheal Blockage… what is it called?

• Aspiration = breathing in foreign objects (usually can be coughed out)

Clinical note - Tracheal Blockage… How to remove/stop this?

If normal coughing doesn’t work…

• Heimlich Maneuver/Abdominal Thrusts - forcefully pushes object out (allows airflow)

• Intubation

• Tracheostomy

What is intubation?

• when epiglottis (tissue around the glottis) swells

  • insert a curved tube through the pharynx and glottis (allows airflow)

What is Tracheostomy?

• Incision through the anterior tracheal wall

• Tube insterted, bypasses the larynx = airflow directly to the trachea

What are the Bronchioles

the finest/smallest passageways = “terminal bronchioles”

• diameter of 0.3-0.5 mm

What do terminal Broncioles do?

• give air to loblues

• in lobules… the bronchioles branch into repiratory bronchioles

What is a lobule?

• a segment of lung tissue bounded by connective tissue portions and supplied by single bronchioles

• accompanied by branches of pulmonary arteries and veins

what are the respiratory bronchioles?

• they are the thinnest “bronchial tree” branches

• ** delivers air to gas exchange surfaces of the lungs

What do respiratory bronchioles open to?

alveolar ducts which end at alveolar sacs (bundles of individual alveoli)

What apperance do alveoli give lungs?

• open/spongy appearance

Alevolar exchnages have very ____ surfance to ________________-

“large” ….”meet metabolic requirements”

What is Alveolar epithelium?

• has a lottla simple squamous epithelium (“pneumocytes TYPE 1”)

• Alveolar marchophages - attack foreign substances

What are septal cells?

aka Pneumocytes Type 2

• produces an oily secretion (“Surfactant”) that is secreted on alveolar surfaces

• larger than simple squamous epithelium (“pneumocytes TYPE 1”)

What is Surfactant?

• Oily secretion from septal cells

• keeps alveoli’s open

• **no/inadequate Surfactant = surfance tension collapses the alveolar walls

  • forceful inhales to POP open alveoli (yeuky)

What is Respiratory Distress Syndrome?

• when it is hard ot open the alveoli/inhaling is hard

• peopel die exhuasted, trying to keep lungs inflated

What is the respiratory membrane?

• Where gas exchange happens in the alveoli .. diffusion happens very rapidlly

What are the 3 layers of the respiratory membrane?

1. Squamous epithelial cells - lines the alveoli

2. Endothelial cells - lines adjacent capillaries

3. Fused basement mambranes - lines alveolar/endothelial cells

Where does the respiratory exchnage surfances get blood from?

• Pulmonary arteries (deoxygenated)

  • goes to alveolar (pulmonary) capillaries = to gain O2, to pulmonary veins, to L atrium to deliver blood to heart

what is Angiotensin?

• an conterting enzyme (aka..ACE)

• Converts angiotensin 1 to angiotnesin 2

• produced by endothelial cells

What is Angiotensin 2 important for?

• regulating blood volume and pressure

How many lobes does each lung have?

• Right lung = 3

• Left lung = 2

** each lung has lobes separated by deep fissures

What is the cardiac Notch?

accomidates the pericardial cavity

What are the lung's’ charaterisitcs?

1. light and spongy - from volume stemming from airways and alveoli

2. Elastic - allows lungs to handle LARGE volume changes

What are the pleural cavities?

• surrounds each lungs

• lined by pleura (a serous membrane)

• inside the thoracic cavity

Parietal vs Visceral pleural…

Parietal = covers inner surface of body walls (extends over the diaphram and mediastinum)

Visceral = cover’s lung’s outer surface (extends into the fissure between the lobes)

**both are in close contact with each other

What is the thoracic Cavity?

• shaped like a broad cone

• its walls = the ribs

• its floor = the diaphram

What separates the Pleural Cavities?

• the Mediastinum (another cavity)

What do both pleural layers secrete?

Pleaural fluid

• reduces frictionbetween the surfaces when breahting happens

Why do doctor collect/examine Pleural fluid?

• exmaines it for the precense of bacteria/blood cells/othe rabnormal components

What is the procedure Thoracentesis?

• when doctors use a long needle and insert int in between the ribs (usually to collect pleural fluid)

What happens when the chest is injured/parietal pleura is penerated/alveoile is damaged?

• air goes into the pleura cavity

What is Pneumothorax?

• the fluid bond between both pleura breaks

  • Elstic fibers start contracting = collapses the lung

Treatment

• remove the air in the lung before sealing the opening

• Repair pleura bond

• Inflate the lungs

What is a “Atelectasis”?

a collapsed lung

What is a Hemothorax?

• the accumulation of blood in pleural cavities reduces lung volume

What is Pneumonia?

• the inflammtion of the pulmonary lobules

• usually from infection (when respiratory defenses are down)

  • restricts airways/fluid leak into alveoli

What is Pneumocystis carnii

• a Fungus (escaped from the alveoli)

• Common Pneumonia in peeps with AIDS

Clinical note - What is artificial Repiration?

A technique to provide air to peeps with unworkable respiratory muscles

• Mouth-mouth

• An Endotrecheal tube = tube into the glottis and trachea

  • Attached to this = Mechanical Ventilators

• CPR (Cardiopulmonary resuscitation) - if cadiovascular system does not work

Clinical Note - What are Pulmonary fuction tests?

• it monitors vairous respiratory functions

  • ** very simple but delivers very credible/useful results

• Spirometer = measures parameters (vital capacity, expiratory reserve volume, inspiratory reserve volume)

• Peak flow meter = measurs max rate of forced expiration (exhale)

Clinical note - What is Decompression Sickness?

Aka “THE BENDS”

• very painful : from a sudden drop in atmospheric pressure (NITROGEN BUBBLES FORM)

Nitrogen affects joint/blood stream/cerebrospinal fluid

Clinical note - What is Carbon Monoxide Poisoning?

• Whecn CO binds with hemoglobin and O2 can bond with the heme anymore

  • the hemoglobin/RBC is useless for respiratory fuctions now

  • ** very likely to die if medical assistance happens

Treatment

1. prevent more CO exposure

2. Administer pure O2 (bump out CO on Hemoglobin)

3. Transfusion of RBC

Clinical note - What is Emphysema?

• A Chronic progressive condition

  • Produces shortness of breath and th einability to tolerate physical exhertion

• Formt he eleimation of bronchioles/alveoli

Clinical note - What is Lung Cancer?

• An agressive class of malignancies originating inthe bronchial passageways/alveoli

• Affects epithelia cells that lines conduting passageways, mucoous glands, alveoli

• Most common cancer to get

Treatment

• surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy

Clinical note - What is Hypercapnia?

• Increase of Pco2 in arterial blood

  • stimulates chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies and chemoreceptive neurons of the medulla obongata

• Stimulates Hyperventilation = increased rate of respiration (rapid breathing)

  • Co2 diffusion increases

• Hyperventilation leads to Hypocapnia = abnormally low Pco2

  • leads to hypoventilation = till Pco2 reaches og amount

Clinical note - What is Sudden Infant death syndrome (SIDS)?

• child just stops breathing

• usual ocurances…

  • midnight to 9AM

  • Late fall/winter

  • infant (2-4 months old)

Risk factors

• sleeping on belly

• genetic factor (controversial)

proposed cause

• respiratory process problem that disrupts the relfexive respiratory pattern

• ** people say that the age this commonly happens correlates to when the respi. centers are going through a period of connecting with the brain