Psychology Chapter 1 Vocabulary

Key terms and definitions from Chapter 1 regarding psychological perspectives, research methods, and scientific principles.

Animal model

in research, an animal whose behavior is studied to derive principles that may apply to human behavior.

Behaviorism

school of thought in psychology that emphasizes study of observable actions over study of the mind.

Biased sample

a subpart of a larger population that does not accurately reflect characteristics of the whole population.

Biological perspective

the attempt to explain behavior in terms of underlying biological principles.

Biopsychosocial model

an approach acknowledging that biological, psychological, and social factors interact to influence human behavior and mental processes.

Case study (clinical method)

in-depth analysis of the behavior of one person or a small number of people.

Causation

the act of causing some effect.

Clinical psychologist

a psychologist who specializes in the treatment of psychological and behavioral disturbances or who does research on such disturbances.

Cognitive psychology

the study of information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving.

Cognitive unconscious

the part of the mind of which we are subjectively unaware and that is not open to introspection.

Confirmation bias

the tendency to remember or notice information that fits one’s expectations, while forgetting or ignoring discrepancies.

Control

in psychology, altering conditions that influence behavior.

Control group

subjects in an experimental study who do not receive the treatment being investigated.

Correlation

the existence of a consistent, systematic relationship between two events, measures, or variables.

Correlation coefficient

a statistical index ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ that indicates the direction and degree of correlation.

Correlational research

descriptive study that quantifies the degree to which events, measures, or variables are associated.

Counseling psychologist

a psychologist who specializes in the treatment of milder emotional and behavioral disturbances.

Counselor

a mental health professional who specializes in helping people with problems that do not involve serious mental disorders.

Critical thinking

in psychology, a type of reflection involving the support of beliefs through scientific explanation and observation.

Cultural relativity

the idea that behavior must be judged relative to the values of the culture in which it occurs.

Dependent variable

the element of an experiment that measures any effect of the manipulation.

Description

in scientific research, the process of naming and classifying.

Determinism

the idea that all behavior has prior causes that would completely explain one’s choices and actions if all such cases were known.

Double-blind study

research in which neither the observer nor the subjects know which subjects received which treatment.

Dynamic unconscious

in Freudian theory, the parts of the mind that are beyond awareness, especially conflicts, impulses, and desires not directly known to a person.

Evolutionary psychology

approach that emphasizes inherited, adaptive aspects of behavior and mental processes.

Experiment

a study in which the investigator manipulates at least one variable while measuring at least one other variable.

Experimental group

group that receives the treatment the study is designed to test.

Experimental subjects

humans (also referred to as participants) or animals whose behavior is investigated in an experiment.

Extraneous variable

a condition or factor that may change and is excluded from influencing the outcome of an experiment.

Falsification

the deliberate attempt to uncover how a commonsense belief or scientific theory might be false.

Free will

the ability to freely make choices that are not controlled by genetics, learning, or unconscious forces; the idea that human beings are capable of making choices or decisions themselves.

Functionalism

school of psychology that considers behaviors in terms of active adaptations.

Gender bias in research

a tendency for females and female-related issues to be underrepresented in research, whether psychological or otherwise.

Gestalt psychology

study of thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analysis into parts.

Humanistic psychology

study of people as inherently good and motivated to learn and improve.

Hypothesis

predicted outcome of an experiment, or an educated guess about the relationship between variables.

Imageless thought

an old term describing the inability of introspectionists to become subjectively aware of some mental processes; an early term describing the cognitive unconscious.

Independent variable

variable manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.

Introspection

personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

Operational definition

defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it.

Meta-analysis

a statistical technique for combining the results of many studies on the same subject.

Natural selection

Darwin’s theory that evolution favors those plants and animals best suited to their living conditions.

Naturalistic observation

observing behavior as it unfolds in natural settings.

Neo-Freudians

psychologists who accept the broad features of Freud’s theory but have revised the theory to include the role of cultural and social factors while still accepting some of its basic concepts.

Neuroscience

the broader field of biopsychologists and others who study the brain and nervous system, such as biologists and biochemists.

Observational data

data that come from watching participants and recording their behavior.

Observer bias

the tendency of an observer to distort observations or perceptions to match his or her expectations.

Observer effect

changes in an organism’s behavior brought about by an awareness of being observed.

Participants

humans whose behavior is investigated in an experiment.

Physiological data

data that come from participants’ physiological processes (including measures of the brain and heart, muscles, and the production of hormones).

Placebo

inactive substance or treatment that is distinguishable from a real, active substance or treatment.

Placebo effect

changes in behavior due to participants’ expectations that a drug (or other treatment) will have some effect.

Population

the entire group of people from which a sample is drawn.

Prediction

in psychology, an ability to accurately forecast behavior.

Pseudoscience

unfounded belief system that seems to be based on science.

Psychoanalysis

Freudian approach to psychotherapy emphasizing the exploration of the unconscious using free association, dream interpretation, resistances, and transference to uncover unconscious conflicts.

Psychoanalyst

a mental health professional (usually a medical doctor) trained to practice psychoanalysis.

Psychodynamic theory

any theory of behavior that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces.

Psychiatrist

a medical doctor with additional training in the diagnosis and treatment of mental and emotional disorders.

Psychological perspective

the traditional view that behavior is shaped by psychological processes occurring at the level of the individual.

Psychologist

a person highly trained in the methods, factual knowledge, and theories of psychology.

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Quasi-experimental study

a descriptive study in which researchers wish to compare groups of people, but cannot randomly assign them to groups.

Radical behaviorism

a behaviorist approach that rejects both introspection and any study of mental events, such as thinking, as inappropriate topics for scientific psychology.

Random assignment

use of change to place subjects in experimental and control groups.

Representative sample

a small, randomly selected part of a larger population that accurately reflects characteristics of the whole population.

Research participant bias

changes in the behavior of study participants caused by the unintended influence of their own expectations.

Researcher bias

changes in participants’ behavior caused by the unintended influence of a researcher’s actions.

Response

any muscular action, glandular activity, or other identifiable aspect of behavior.

Sample

subset of a population being studied.

Science

an objective approach to answering questions that relies on careful observation and experiments.

Scientific method

a form of critical thinking based on careful measurement, controlled observation, and repeatable results.

Scientific observation

an empirical investigation structured to answer questions about the world in a systematic and intersubjective fashion.

Self-actualization

the process of fully developing personal potentials.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

a prediction that prompts people to act in ways that make the prediction come true.

Self-report data

information that is provided by participants about their own thoughts, emotions, or behaviors, typically on a questionnaire or during an interview.

Single-blind study

research in which the subjects do not know which treatment they receive.

Social desirability

deliberate tendency to provide polite, socially acceptable responses.

Social norms

rules that define acceptable and expected behavior for members of a group.

Social perspective

the focus on the importance of social contexts in influencing the behavior of individuals.

Statistically significant

experimental results that would rarely occur by chance alone.

Stimulus

any physical energy that an organism senses.

Structuralism

study of sensations and personal experience analyzed as basic elements.

Structured observation

observing behavior in situations that have been set up by the researcher.

Superstition

unfounded belief held without evidence or in spite of falsifying evidence.

Survey

descriptive research method in which participants are asked the same questions.

Theory

comprehensive explanation of observable events.

Uncritical acceptance

the tendency to believe claims because they seem true or because it would be nice if they were true.

Understanding

in psychology, being able to state the causes of a behavior.

Variable

factor or characteristic manipulated or measured in research.