General Biology I: Exam 2

Haploid

This means 1 set of chromosomes

Ploidy

Number of Set of Chromosomes

Diploid

This means 2 set of chromosomes

Cell Cycle

The whole goal of this is to reproduce, growth & development, and Tissue renewal

Genome

This is all the DNA in your cell

Chromatin

Loose DNA and proteins (tangled headphones)

Chromosomes

This is where proteins are packaged (DNA material)

Gametes

These are sex cells in animals- have 23 chromosomes

Somatic Cells

These are body cells (2 sets in each gene)- have 46 chromosomes

G1

This phase is part of interphase- our goals is to prepare for division through growth in cell function, communication, and protein manufacture

S

This is DNA being replicated which will be form identical sister chromatids

G2

When centrosomes duplicate to move chromosomes

Interphase

This stage overall has the goal of preparing the cell for division

Prophase

This is when chromosomes condense as the mitotic spindle forms (kinetochores begin to attach to the chromosomes with spindle fibers)

Metaphase

This is the longest stage of mitosis where the chromosomes begin to align on the metaphase plate

Anaphase

This is the shortest stage of mitosis where cohesion proteins are cleaved by an enzyme (disjunction) where the chromosomes move on opposite side

Telophase

When 2 new daughter cells form as nuclear envelope forms.

Cytokinesis

Separate from mitosis - just dividing cytoplasm (some cells will not undergo this process)

Cell Plate

This is a disk shaped structure that forms during cell division in a plant cell (cytokinesis)

Centrosomes

These are vital for organizing structures in microtubules- These hold on to the spindle fibers

Microtubules

These are made out of tubulin proteins which are formed from centrosomes that help move chromosomes in cell division

Kinetochores

These help attach chromatids to spindle fibers when dividing during mitosis and meisois (in the centromere region)

How many chromosomes does one human body (somatic) cell have?

46

How many chromosomes does one human gamete have?

23

Yes

In mitosis, are cells identical to each other before and after dividing?

Asexual reproduction

This is when one parent that undergoes mitosis always have the same clones (could lead to more mutations)

Sexual Reproduction

These are when there are 2 parents that allow for meiosis to happen

Advantages: Genetic variation

Disadvantages: Hard to find partner especially if you are in a selective environment

Fertilization in human

This is when information is fused to result in a zygote (starts off in multicellular diploid organisms) that will grow into a multicellular (haploid) organism

Fertilization in plant cells

This fertilization is the same process as humans where the zygote is a multicellular diploid organism at first then grows into a multicellular haploid organism

Fungi and Protists Fertilization

The fertilization has a dominant stage as a haploid and in the end, results in a single cell haploid organism after meiosis

Homologous Chromosomes

Although these chromosomes look quite similar, they are indeed different in terms of alleles and possibly genetic material

Sister Chromatids

These are simplified chromosomes that are IDENTICAL with each other.

Prophase I

Your longest stage of meiosis as chromosomes are condensed- aligned based on genes

Synapsis

This is the process of homologous chromosomes that pair up to form the tetrad

Tetrad

When 2 homologous chromosomes pair up together

Crossing over

This is when genes are being swapped

Chiasmata

Where genes cross with each other

Metaphase I

When homologous pairs line up at the metaphase plate (still crossing over)

• Alignment is random (random assortment)

• These will line up at the metaphase plate as spindle fibers begin to maneuver

Anaphase I

When homologous chromosomes separate as sister chromatids are still the same (ploidy begins to change at this stage)

Telophase I

When each chromosomes have sister chromatids- homologous pairs have been separated (allowing cytokinesis to occur simultaneously)

Interkinesis

This is the phase in the middle of meiosis where the cell takes a break before moving on

Prophase II

When sister chromatids are going to prepare for division once again (spindle fibers begin to form as the nuclear envelope deforms)

Metaphase II

Sister chromatids are going to line up on the metaphase plate as spindle fibers connect the 2 together

Anaphase II

When sister chromatids are divided (no long sister chromatids) and spindle fibers pull the pieces (divided)

Telophase II

The cells will be divided into 4 cells- each containing haploids, etc. and nuclear envelope forms

Testing-Blending Hypothesis

Mendel assumed that when 2 plants will breed, they will have an offspring that had both of their colors blended together

F1

This was the generation that only had purple flowers

F2

This was the generation where white flowers began to appear

Mendel’s Model

This was modeled based on alleles → where offspring would get them from 2 parents (3:1 ratio)

Alleles

This is an alternative form of a gene

Homozygous

This shows that a genotype might be identical

Heterozygous

This shows that a genotype have different alleles

Dominant Allele

This allele majority of the time reveals what an organism looks like

Recessive Allele

This allele will have no affect on a trait unless if its homozygous

Phenotype

The physical/expressed type gene

Genotype

This is the genetic type based on alleles.

Law of segregation

When each gamete will get one of each allele (happens at Anaphase I)

Law of Independent Assortment

When the inheritance of alleles for one trait will not influence the inheritance of alleles for another trait (metaphase I)

Multiplication Rule

The rule where one event will not affect the probability of another (independent events) “and”

Addition Rule

The rule where 2 events cannot occur simutaneously (mutually exclusive events) “or”

Morgan’s Chromosomal Theory

This is the theory where chromosomes were proven to be the location of genes and heredity.

Wild Type

This phenotype is known as the “dominant” phenotype (in fruit flies)

Mutant Phenotype

This phenotype is known as the “recessive” phenotype (in fruit flies)

XX

What is the sex-linked chromosome in females?

XY

What is the sex linked chromosome in males?

Autosomes

This is homomorphic due to being the same shape

Sex Chromosomes

These are not morphoglically similar due to meiosis and sometimes based on gender

Female Chromosome

These chromosomes are homogametic due to having an XX genotype

Males

These are heterogametic due to having the XY genotype

Diploid female bees

In Haplodiploidy, where do haploid male bees originate from?

either from diploid female bees from meiosis and haploid male bees to fertilization

In Haplodiploidy, where do diploid female bees originate from?

Barr Body

When 1 X in a chromosome is activated during embroynic development (calico cats)

They will be unique

When chromosomes cross over, what happens to the recombinations for the daughter chromosome?

They will be identical to the mother chromosome

When chromosomes don’t cross over, what will happen to the daughter cells?

Griffith’s Experiment

This was the experiment where different strains were injected into mice- where some killed the mice and others where the mice survived. Created the idea of transformation

Proteins

DNA was originally hypothesized to be what?

They survived

When 2 rough strains of bacterium was injected into the mice, what happened?

They died

When 2 smooth strains of bacterium was injected into the mice, what happened?

They lived

When the smooth strain was denatured and injected into the mice, what happened?

They died

When the smooth denatured strain and the rough strain were combined, what happened to the mice when injected?

Avery

This experiment was able to separate DNA into macromolecules (all 3 types) but noticed that only DNA can be transformed

Hershey Chase Experiment

This was the experiment where viruses infected bacteria in DNA (whichever phage was infected is genetic material)

Phosphate group, sugar backbone and nitrogenous bases

What does a nucleotide contain?

Purines and Pyrimidines

What are the 2 types of nitrogenous bases?

Adenine and Guanine

What are the 2 types of purines?

A + T (or U because of RNA) G + C

What purines and pyrimidines go together?

Rosalind Franklin

This is the first person to discover DNA structure- helix, distance between turns, 2 strands, and 4 nucleotides stacked like rings

Charguff’s Rule

This rule states what pyrimidine binds with what purine

Watson + Crick

This is proven to how DNA carries genetic information and is replicated- and purine and pyrimidine together was the most consistent to x-ray data

Phosphate group and sugar backbone

Which areas of nucleotides do phosphodister bonds form?

OH^- (hydroxide)

What does the 3’ have?

Phosphate group

What does the 5’ end contain?

2 bonds

How many hydrogen bonds as A and T contain?

3 hydrogen bonds

How many hydrogen bonds does C & G contain?

So it will be easier to break the bonds apart with an enzyme when replicating the DNA

Why are there hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases?

Double Helix, Semiconservative, and Antiparallel

What are a few terms that DNA is known as?

Helicase

This will begin to unwind helix by breaking hydrogen bonds

Topoisomerase

This relaxes the helix

RNA primase

This helps build a piece of RNA to start off the replication process (RNA primer formed)

DNA polymerase

This builds a DNA polymer by attaching to the primer