Chapter 1: Brain Basics

Second messengers

Second messengers

Substances that convey the message of neurotransmitters from the membrane to the internal cell machinery.

learning and memory

Norepinephrine might play a role in ___________________.

myelin sheath

Most axons are covered with a(n) ________ that is made by cells called glia.

Huntingtons Disease

A fatal genetic disorder that causes the progressive breakdown of nerve cells in the brain.

Central Nervous System

The midbrain also has clusters of neurons that regulate activity in widespread parts of the ________

Anticonvulsant

________ means "used to prevent or reduce the severity of epileptic fits or other convulsions".

Colliculus

A small bump, especially one of two pairs in the roof of the midbrain, involved respectively in vision and hearing.

Acetylcholinesterase

The enzyme that breaks down ACh once it is not needed anymore.

Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Korsakoff Syndrome

Deficiencies in norepinephrine occur in people with ___________, _____________, and ____________ ___________

Dopamine

________ directs the hypothalamus to make hormones.

auditory reflexes

The colliculi play a critical role in visual & ________ + in relaying this type of information to the thalamus.

Amino acids

________ are widely distributed throughout the body and brain.

cerebral cortex

The ________ and all four lobes are in the forebrain.

Aspirin

________ reduces fever and pain by inhibiting the cyclooxygenase enzyme.

neuron

The ________ is the basic working unit of the brain.

neurotransmitters

Drugs bring about their effects by acting like ________________.

Trophic Factors

________ may also prove useful for new therapies of developmental and degenerative brain diseases.

Neurons

________ transmit electrical impulses along axons to send a message.

Synapses

________ are the contact points where neurons communicate.

Gaseous neurotransmitters

________ dont act at receptor sites.

Benzodiazepines

________ are organic chemical substances made of two carbon rings.

GnRH

Neurons in the hypothalamus produce gonadotropin- releasing hormone (________)

Direct effects of second messengers

________ on genetic materials may lead to long- term alterations in cellular functioning and changes in behavior.

thyroid and steroid hormones

Receptors for _______ ___ _______ ________ are found in selected populations of neurons in the brain and relevant organs in the body.

Cerebellum

The ________ has two hemispheres that control the precise timing of movement and cognitive processes.

Nitric oxide

________ may also be attributed to excess glutamate release that causes stroke and neuronal damage.

Glycine

________ and gamma- aminobutyric acid (GABA) inhibit the firing of neurons.

Acute stress

________ increases the release of norepinephrine from sympathetic nerves and the adrenal medulla.

development of drugs

The ________ that block or stimulate NMDA receptors hold promise for improving brain function and treating neurological and psychological disorders.

smaller branches

The axon gives rise to ________ & ends at nerve terminals.

spinal cord

The ________ is the extension of the brain through the vertebral column.

Prostaglandins

A class of compounds made from lipids made by an enzyme called cyclooxygenase.

Hormones

________ are taken up from blood and act to affect neuronal activity and aspects of neuronal structure.

Reproduction

________ in females is a good example of regular cyclic process driven by circulating hormones and involving a feedback loop.

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disease characterized by fatigue and muscle weakness caused by the formation of antibodies that attack ACh receptors on skeletal muscle.

Peptides

Short chains of amino acids synthesized in the cell body.

Nerve impulses

Nerve impulses involve the opening & closing of ___ ________.

genes

Thyroid and steroid hormones bind to receptor proteins that in turn bind to DNA and regulate the action of ______.

PNS

The ________ contains nerves and small concentrations of gray matter called ganglia.

midbrain

The ________ consists of two pairs of small hills called Colliculi.

control of behavior

The brain adjusts its performance and ________ in response to changing environment.

ACh

________ is then released into the synapse where it attaches to ________ receptors on target cells.

Cerebral cortex/gray matter

A sheet of tissue covering the outermost layer of the cerebrum

Thalamus

It passes most sensory information onto the cerebral cortex after helping to prioritize that information

Hypothalamus

The control center for appetite, defensive & reproductive behaviors, and the circadian rhythm

Cerebral nucleus

A cluster of neurons in the CNS (central nervous system)

Pavlovian Learning

A learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell)

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Formed by the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Formed by all the other nerves branching off the brain and spinal cord into the body

Somatic Nervous System

Made up of neurons connecting CNS to the parts of the body that interact with the outside world

Autonomic Nervous System

Made of neurons connecting the CNS with the internal organs, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle

Sympathetic Nervous System

Moves around energy and resources in times of stress

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Conserves energy during relaxed states and sleep

Cell body/Soma

The part of the neuron that contains all the cellular machinery it needs to survive (nucleus, mitochondria, etc.)

Dendrites

Branched extensions of the neuron's cytoplasm that receive messages from other neurons

Axon

A mostly linear extension of the neurons' cytoplasm that sends messages to other neurons

Ion channels

Selectively permeable, water-filled molecular tunnels that pass through cell membrane and allow ions or small molecules to enter/leave the cell

Membrane potential

The voltage of the cells membrane

Neurotransmitters

The brain's chemical messengers

Acetylcholinesterase

The enzyme that breaks down ACh once it is not needed anymore

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disease characterized by fatigue and muscle weakness caused by the formation of antibodies that attack ACh receptors on skeletal muscle

Huntingtons Disease

A fatal genetic disorder that causes the progressive breakdown of nerve cells in the brain

Peptides

Short chains of amino acids synthesized in themcell body

Endorphins

A class of opiate-like peptides that were named based on the term "endogenous morphine"

Substance P

A peptide neurotransmitter causing the sensation of burning pain

Capsaicin

A compound that causes the release of Substance P

Trophic Factors

Substances needed for development, function, and survival of groups of neurons

In all people this causes the release of two hormones

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Females

causes ovulation and starts releasing Estrogen and Progesterone

Prostaglandins

A class of compounds made from lipids made by an enzyme called cyclooxygenase

Second messengers

Substances that convey the message of neurotransmitters from the membrane to the internal cell machinery

ATP

The source of energy in all cells

cAMP

Changes the function of ion channels in the membrane and the expression of genes in the nucleus