Chapter 1 of General Psychology

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the origins of psychology, major early figures, contemporary perspectives, research methodologies, and ethical guidelines based on the lecture material.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

variable

Any factor or condition that can change or be manipulated in a study.

sample

A subset of a population used in research to make inferences about the whole.

psychoanalysis

A therapeutic approach that focuses on exploring unconscious thoughts and emotions, developed by Sigmund Freud.

charles darwin

A naturalist whose theory of evolution by natural selection greatly influenced psychology and the understanding of behavior.

placebo

A substance with no therapeutic effect used as a control in testing new drugs.

Goals of Psychology

To describe, explain, predict, and influence behavior and mental processes.

Wilhelm Wundt

Commonly known as the founder of psychology as an experimental science; he established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in $1879$.

Edward B. Titchener

A student of Wundt who developed the school of structuralism, which focused on the basic components of conscious experience through introspection.

statistics

A branch of mathematics dealing with data collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organization, commonly used in psychological research to analyze results.

robert v. guthrie

An American psychologist known for his work in the field of psychology and his contributions to behaviorism, particularly in the study of learning and behavior modification.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology that held that even the most complex conscious experiences could be broken down into component parts of sensations and feelings.

carl rogers

An influential American psychologist who is best known for developing client-centered therapy and emphasizing the importance of self-actualization and personal growth in psychological treatment.

durganand sinha

An Indian psychologist known for his research in environmental psychology and contributions to understanding human behavior in relation to the environment.

pauline elizabeth scarborough

An American psychologist recognized for her contributions to developmental psychology and her research on child development and education.

abraham maslow

A psychologist known for his hierarchy of needs, which outlines a progression of human motivations from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

William James

An American philosopher and psychologist who founded functionalism, emphasizing the study of the purpose or function of behavior and mental experiences.

Functionalism

A school of psychology that emphasized the adaptive role of behavior and consciousness in helping organisms adjust to their environment.

Mary Whiton Calkins

The first woman to be elected president of the American Psychological Association (APA) and a researcher in dreams, memory, and personality.

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first American woman to earn an official Ph.D. in psychology; she authored 'The Animal Mind' and studied mental processes of different animal species.

G. Stanley Hall

Established the first psychological lab in the United States at Johns Hopkins University and founded the American Psychological Association (APA).

Francis C. Sumner

The first Black American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, awarded by Clark University in $1920$.

Kenneth Bancroft Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark

Collaborated on research concerning the negative effects of racial discrimination, which was instrumental in the $1954$ Supreme Court decision to end school segregation.

longitudinal design

A research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables over a period of time, often used to study developmental trends and changes.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis, which emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences in determining behavior and personality.

Behaviorism

A school of psychology that rejected the study of consciousness and focused on observable behaviors that could be objectively measured and verified.

Ivan Pavlov

A Russian physiologist who demonstrated that dogs could learn to associate a neutral stimulus with an automatic behavior, providing a foundation for behaviorism.

John B. Watson

A major proponent of behaviorism who argued that the goal of psychology should be to discover the fundamental principles of learning.

B. F. Skinner

A behaviorist who used reinforcement or punishment to systematically shape the behavior of rats and pigeons.

Humanistic Psychology

A perspective founded by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow that emphasizes psychological growth, human potential, self-direction, and free will.

Biological Perspective

Emphasizes the physical bases of human and animal behavior, including the nervous system, endocrine system, immune system, and genetics.

Neuroscience

The scientific study of the nervous system, especially the brain.

culture

The shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices of a group of people that shape their behavior and interpretation of the world.

cross-sectional design

A research method that analyzes data from a population or a representative subset at a specific point in time.

indigenous psychology

A branch of psychology focused on the specific psychological practices, beliefs, and traditions of indigenous peoples, integrating cultural context into understanding psychological phenomena.

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on the influence of mental processes on behavior, such as memory, perception, language, problem-solving, and thinking.

Cross-cultural Perspective

Emphasizes the diversity of behavior patterns across different cultural settings and countries.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to others, and the tendency to use one's own culture as a standard for judgment.

Individualistic Cultures

Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the individual over the needs and goals of the group.

Collectivistic Cultures

Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the group over the needs and goals of the individual.

Evolutionary Psychology

Applies the principles of evolution, including natural selection, to explain psychological processes.

natural experiment

An observational study where the researcher observes the effects of a naturally occurring event on different groups.

effect size

A quantitative measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon, often used in statistical analyses to assess the strength of a relationship or the difference between groups.

critical thinking

The ability to analyze information, evaluate evidence, and form reasoned conclusions. It involves questioning assumptions and considering different perspectives.

Scientific Method

A set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions, generating evidence, and drawing conclusions.

Empirical Evidence

Verifiable evidence that is based upon objective observation, measurement, and/or experimentation.

Hypothesis

A tentative statement that describes the relationship between two or more variables; a testable prediction.

Operational Definition

A precise description of how variables in a study will be manipulated or measured.

Statistically Significant

A mathematical indication that research results are not very likely to have occurred by chance.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique used to combine and analyze the data from many different studies on a single topic.

Replicate

To repeat or duplicate a scientific study in order to increase confidence in the validity of the original findings.

Theory

A tentative explanation that tries to integrate and account for the relationship of various findings and observations.

Descriptive Research

Scientific procedures used to systematically observe and describe behavior without manipulating variables.

Naturalistic Observation

A method where behavior is directly observed and recorded in its natural setting without experimental manipulation.

Case Study

An intensive, highly detailed investigation of a single individual, family, or other unit.

Survey

A research technique designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a group through questionnaires or interviews.

Representative Sample

A selected segment that very closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics.

Random Selection

A process in which subjects are selected randomly from a larger group so that every member has an equal chance of being included.

Correlational Study

A research strategy that examines how strongly two variables are related to or associated with each other.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical indication of the magnitude and direction of the relationship between two variables, ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$.

Positive Correlation

A finding that two factors vary systematically in the same direction, both increasing or both decreasing.

Negative Correlation

A finding that two factors vary systematically in opposite directions, one increasing as the other decreases.

Experimental Research

A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating one factor.

Independent Variable

The purposely manipulated factor in an experiment thought to produce change; also called the treatment variable.

Dependent Variable

The factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment; thought to be influenced by the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

An extraneous factor other than the independent variable that, if not controlled, could affect the outcome of an experiment.

Random Assignment

The process of assigning participants to experimental or control groups so that all have an equal chance of being in either group.

Experimental Group

The group of participants exposed to the treatment condition of the independent variable.

Control Group

The group of participants exposed to the control condition of the independent variable, against which the experimental group is compared.

Double-blind Technique

An experimental control where neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with them are aware of the condition assigned.

Placebo Effect

Any change attributed to a person's beliefs and expectations rather than to an actual drug, treatment, or procedure.

Demand Characteristics

Subtle cues or signals expressed by the researcher that communicate the kind of response or behavior expected from the participant.

Longitudinal Design

A research strategy that tracks a particular variable or set of variables in the same group of participants over time.

Cross-sectional Design

A research strategy that compares different groups of people at a single point in time.

Open Science

Transparent research practices including sharing procedures, statistical calculations, and data.

Informed Consent

An ethical requirement that research participants be informed of the purpose and nature of a study before agreeing to participate.

Debriefing

A process at the conclusion of a study where participants are provided with information about the nature and results of the research.

Comparative Psychology

The branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species.

Testing Effect

The finding that practicing retrieval of information through testing improves long-term retention more than re-studying information.

Psychiatry

A medical specialty focused on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders, practiced by physicians with medical degrees ($M.D.$ or $D.O.$).