WHAP Chapter 4: Culture and Religion in Eurasia / North Africa

What are the main teachings of Confucius?

The moral example of superiors is the answer to disorder, emphasizing education, ritual, and the family as a model for political life.

What was the Legalist view on human nature?

Legalism held a pessimistic view of human nature, believing that only the state can act in people's long-term interest.

Who was Han Fei and what was his contribution to Legalism?

Han Fei was a leading Legalist philosopher who advocated for strict rules and enforcement to restore order.

What was the principle behind Confucianism?

The moral example of superiors inspires deference and obedience from inferiors.

What role did education play in Confucian thought?

Education was seen as the key to moral improvement and the application of liberal arts to government problems.

What is the significance of the Analects in Confucianism?

The Analects are a collection of Confucius's teachings compiled by his students, forming the basis of Confucian thought.

How did Confucianism become the official ideology of China?

After Legalism was discredited due to its brutality, Confucianism was adopted as the official ideology.

What are the paired concepts of wen and wu in Confucianism?

Wen refers to refined qualities like scholarship and artistic abilities, while wu refers to physical and martial achievements, with wen considered superior.

What was the ideal society according to Confucianism?

The ideal society was viewed as a past golden age with 'superior men' possessing outstanding moral character and intellect.

What expectations did Confucianism create for government?

Emperors were expected to keep taxes low, provide justice, and meet material needs.

What was the role of women in Confucian thought?

Women were defined as humble and serving their husbands, with teachings like Ban Zhao's 'Lessons for Women' outlining their roles.

What was the impact of Confucius on East Asia?

Confucius's ideas had a profound impact on China and the rest of East Asia, shaping cultural and political thought.

What characterized the era of warring states in China?

The breakdown of China's unity leading to chaos and the search for order by thinkers.

What was the main focus of Confucian virtues?

Confucian virtues emphasized the importance of history and moral character.

How did Confucianism view rituals and ceremonies?

Confucianism placed importance on rituals and ceremonies as essential to society.

What was the significance of filial piety in Confucianism?

Filial piety emphasized the family as a model for political life and defined the roles within the family.

What was the relationship between Confucianism and religion?

Confucianism was characterized as nonreligious in nature.

What was the impact of local traditions alongside major religions?

Local and orally transmitted religious traditions flourished alongside major religions like Buddhism and Daoism.

What philosophical traditions emerged in Greece around 500 B.C.E.?

Rational humanism, represented by philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

What characterizes Confucianism in terms of its religious nature?

Confucianism was nonreligious in character, emphasizing practical, worldly concerns.

How did the educated elite in Confucianism view gods and spirits?

They did not deny their existence but had little to do with them.

Who is associated with Daoism and what is the title of its foundational text?

Laozi, author of the Daodejing (The Way and Its Power).

What is the central concept of Daoism?

Dao, which refers to the way of nature and the underlying principle governing all natural phenomena.

How does Daoism contrast with Confucianism regarding education and self-improvement?

Daoism views education and striving for improvement as artificial and useless.

What lifestyle does Daoism advocate for?

Withdrawal into the world of nature, simple self-sufficient living, and limited government.

What is the Daoist perspective on public life?

Daoism invites disengagement with public life and yearns to connect with nature.

How did elite Chinese view Daoism in relation to Confucianism?

They often regarded Daoism as a complement to Confucianism.

How did Daoism enter popular religion?

It sought to tap the power of the dao for practical purposes, including magic and the quest for immortality.

What role did Daoism play in peasant rebellions?

It provided the ideology for peasant rebellions, such as the Yellow Turbans.

What distinguishes the elite culture of classical India from that of China?

Indian elite culture was enthusiastic about the divine and spiritual matters.

What is a key characteristic of Hinduism regarding its historical development?

Hinduism had no historical founder and developed alongside Indian civilization.

What are the Vedas and their significance in Indian culture?

The Vedas are widely recognized sacred texts that provide common ground within the diversity of Indian culture and religion.

Who compiled the Vedas and when were they written down?

Compiled by Brahmins, the Vedas were written down in Sanskrit around 600 B.C.E.

What societal structure is reflected in the Vedic texts?

A clearly patriarchal society, though less restrictive for upper-class women than in later periods.

What philosophical works emerged in response to dissatisfaction with Brahmins?

The Upanishads, composed between 800 and 400 B.C.E.

What is the central idea of the Upanishads?

The concept of Brahman (the World Soul) as the ultimate reality.

What is the ultimate goal of Hinduism as described in the Upanishads?

Moksha, which is the union of atman (individual soul) with Brahman.

What concepts govern the process of achieving moksha?

Samsara (reincarnation/rebirth) and karma.

How did Hinduism influence gender roles in society?

Hinduism legitimated and expressed India's gender system, increasingly forbidding women from learning the Vedas.

What did the Laws of Manu dictate regarding women's roles?

They defined women as beholden to men in every phase of life.

What was the significance of the Kamasutra in Hindu thought?

It detailed sexual pleasure as a legitimate goal for both men and women.

What role did Brahmin priests and wandering ascetics play in Hinduism?

They spread ideas and provided multiple paths to fulfillment in Hindu religious thought.

Who is Siddhartha Gautama and what is he known for?

Siddhartha Gautama, who lived around 566-486 B.C.E., is known for his spiritual journey that led to his enlightenment at age 29, after which he became known as the Buddha, meaning 'the awakened one.'

What is the central teaching of Buddhism regarding life?

The central teaching of Buddhism is that life is suffering, caused by craving for individual fulfillment and attachment to self.

What are the methods proposed by Buddhism to overcome suffering?

Buddhism suggests leading a modest and moral life and practicing meditation as ways to overcome suffering.

What is the ultimate goal in Buddhism?

The ultimate goal in Buddhism is the achievement of enlightenment or nirvana, which is the extinguishing of individual identity.

Which elements of Hinduism are present in Buddhist teachings?

Buddhist teachings include concepts such as life as an illusion, karma and rebirth, overcoming the demands of the ego, the practice of meditation, and the hope for release from the cycle of rebirth.

How did Buddhism challenge Hinduism?

Buddhism challenged Hinduism by rejecting Brahmins' religious authority, showing a lack of interest in abstract speculation, and emphasizing individual responsibility for spiritual development.

What stance did Buddhism take regarding the caste system?

Buddhism challenged the inequalities of the caste system.

What was Buddha's view on women in relation to enlightenment?

Buddha viewed women as an obstacle to male enlightenment, although he ultimately allowed the establishment of separate female orders of nuns.

How did Buddhism appeal to lower castes and women in India?

Buddhism appealed to lower castes and women by teaching in local languages, linking to local traditions, and receiving state support from Ashoka.

What are the two main branches of Buddhism and their characteristics?

The two main branches are early Buddhism (Theravada), which is rigorous and less accessible, and Mahayana (Great Vehicle), which is spiritually accessible to a broader audience.

How did Hinduism evolve in relation to Buddhism?

Buddhism was gradually reincorporated into Hinduism, especially Mahayana Buddhism, which spread to other parts of Asia.

What are the epic poems that express popular Hinduism?

The epic poems that express popular Hinduism are the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.

What is the significance of the Bhagavad Gita in Hinduism?

The Bhagavad Gita outlines that action in the world and performance of caste duties provide a path to liberation.

What is Zoroastrianism and who is its prophet?

Zoroastrianism is a religion founded by the Persian prophet Zarathustra, traditionally dated to the sixth or seventh century B.C.E.

What is the central god in Zoroastrianism and what does he represent?

The central god in Zoroastrianism is Ahura Mazda, who represents truth, light, and goodness.

What is the cosmic struggle in Zoroastrianism?

The cosmic struggle in Zoroastrianism is between Ahura Mazda (good) and Angra Mainyu (evil), with a belief that Ahura Mazda will ultimately triumph.

What are some key ideas that Jews in the Persian Empire adopted from Zoroastrianism?

Jews in the Persian Empire adopted ideas such as the concept of God vs. Satan, the notion of a last judgment, and bodily resurrection.

What led to the decline of Zoroastrianism?

Zoroastrianism declined due to the arrival of Islam and the disastrous impacts of Alexander and the Seleucid dynasty.

What is the significance of Ashoka in the context of Buddhism?

Ashoka, who ruled from 268-232 B.C.E., provided state support for Buddhism, aiding its spread and establishment.

What role did monasteries and stupas play in Buddhism?

Monasteries and stupas served as centers for Buddhist practice and pilgrimage, linking Buddhism to local traditions.

What was the Buddha's approach to the spiritual development of individuals?

Buddha emphasized the need for individuals to take responsibility for their own spiritual development.

What is the idea of a last judgment in religious belief?

It refers to the belief in a final judgment of souls and the bodily resurrection.

What is the role of the Messiah in the context of final defeat of evil?

The Messiah is believed to help in the final defeat of evil.

How is the world envisioned to change at the end of time in certain religious beliefs?

There is a belief in the remaking of the world at the end of time.

What is the origin of Judaism?

Judaism developed among the Hebrews and is recorded in Hebrew scripture.

Who led the early migration to Palestine according to Jewish tradition?

Abraham led the early migration to Palestine.

What significant political event occurred around 1000 B.C.E. in ancient Israel?

The establishment of the state of Israel, divided into north (Israel) and south (Judah).

What happened to Israel in 722 B.C.E.?

Israel was conquered by Assyria, and its inhabitants were deported.

What occurred in Judea in 586 B.C.E.?

Judea came under Babylonian control, and elite exiles in Babylon retained their cultural identity.

What name did the exiles from Judea adopt upon returning to their homeland?

They called themselves Jews.

What is a distinctive conception of God in Judaism?

Yahweh demanded exclusive loyalty and established a covenant relationship with His people.

How did the conception of God evolve in Judaism?

God transitioned from a god of war to a god of social justice and compassion.

What foundational role does Judaism play in relation to other religions?

Judaism serves as a foundation for both Christianity and Islam.

How does Judaism view the material world?

The material world is not seen as an illusion; humans have mastery over it as given by God.

What characterized the religious tradition of Classical Greece?

Classical Greece did not create an enduring religious tradition but maintained a system of polytheism and fertility cults.

What was the key element of Greek rationalism?

The way questions were asked, focusing on argument, logic, and questioning of received wisdom.

Who is a notable figure associated with Greek rationalism?

Socrates, known for his constant questioning of assumptions.

What was Socrates accused of, leading to his death sentence?

He was accused of corrupting the youth.

What did Plato propose in his work 'Republic'?

He outlined a design for a good society led by a 'philosopher-king'.

What is Aristotle known for in the context of Greek philosophy?

He provided the most complete expression of the Greek way of knowing.

How did Greek rationalism influence later cultures?

It spread widely, aided by Alexander's empire and the Romans, and influenced Christian theology.

What similarities exist between Gautama and Jesus?

Both were spiritual seekers, mystics, and wisdom teachers who challenged conventional values.

What moral principles did both Gautama and Jesus emphasize?

They urged renunciation of wealth and stressed love or compassion as the basis of morality.

What was the call to action for the followers of Gautama and Jesus?

They called for personal transformation among their followers.

What was the basis of morality emphasized by Jesus?

Love or compassion.

What personal transformation did Jesus call for among his followers?

A personal transformation.

How did Jesus' teachings differ from Gautama's in terms of social focus?

Jesus' teachings were more social and political.

Who did Jesus speak on behalf of?

The poor, oppressed, and 'impure'.

How long was Jesus active in his ministry compared to Gautama?

Jesus was active for about three years; Gautama for over forty.

What were the circumstances of Jesus' and Gautama's deaths?

Jesus was executed as a criminal; Gautama died of old age.

Did Jesus and Gautama intend to create new religions?

Probably neither intended to create a new religion.

What role did Paul play in the spread of Christianity?

He began the process of spreading Christianity around 6-67 C.E.

What demographic primarily made up early converts to Christianity?

Typically urban lower class and women.

What attracted followers to Christianity in its early days?

Miracle stories and the care Christians had for each other.

Where did Paul spread Christianity?

To modern Turkey and Syria.

Which region was the first to adopt Christianity as a state religion?

Armenia.

How did Christianity spread to southern India and Central Asia?

Through Syrian and Persian missionaries.

What significant change occurred in the Roman Empire regarding Christianity in 380 C.E.?

The conversion of Emperor Constantine.