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What is naive realism?

The belief that the world is exactly as it seems.

What is confirmation bias?

Only looking for evidence that would prove your theory correct.

What is belief perseverance?

Sticking to your original hypothesis even when evidence contradicts it.

What does it mean to imply causation from correlation?

Assuming one element causes another when they are seen together, without considering a third variable.

Who is associated with structuralism in psychology?

E. B. Titchener.

What is the goal of structuralism?

To use introspection to identify basic elements of structures of consciousness.

What is functionalism in psychology?

Understanding the functions or adaptive purpose of our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Who are key figures in functionalism?

William James and James Agnell.

What is behaviorism?

A psychological approach that focuses on observable behavior and discovering general principles of learning.

Who are key figures in behaviorism?

Watson, Skinner, Pavlov, Thorndike.

What is cognitivism?

A psychological approach that explains the role of mental processes in behavior.

Who are key figures in cognitivism?

Piaget, Neisser, George Miller.

What is psychoanalysis?

A psychological approach that uncovers the role of unconscious psychological processes and early life experiences on behavior.

Who are key figures in psychoanalysis?

Freud, Jung, Adler.

What is naturalistic observation?

Observing a subject in their natural environment without influencing them.

What is a case study?

Studying one or a small group of people for a long period of time.

What are self-report measures and surveys?

Methods where subjects answer questions about themselves.

What are the necessary components of an experiment?

Manipulation of an independent variable and random assignment to condition groups.

What is the difference between random selection and random assignment?

Random selection is picking a sample group randomly, while random assignment is assigning individuals in the sample to control and experimental groups.

What is external validity?

The ability to generalize the study results to the public.

What is internal validity?

Confidence that there is a cause and effect correlation in a study.

What is test-retest reliability?

The consistency of results when the same test is repeated.

What is inter-item reliability?

The degree to which questions are asking the same thing.

What is inter-rater reliability?

The agreement among researchers on the interpretation of the subject.

What happens during the action potential in neurons?

Ions flow in and out of the neuron, leading to a higher electrical charge inside, which triggers the action potential.

What is the refractory period in neurons?

The period after an action potential during which another action potential cannot be fired.

What role does the myelin sheath play in neuron communication?

It allows the action potential to move efficiently from node to node along the axon.

What are the six major components of the central nervous system?

Cerebral cortex, Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Temporal lobe, Occipital lobe, and Brain stem.

What is the role of the cerebral cortex?

Analyzes sensory information and higher brain functions.

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

Motor function, language, decision making, and planning.

What is the prefrontal cortex responsible for?

Thinking, planning, and language.

What does Broca's area control?

Speech production.

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

Specialized for touch and perception.

What is the role of the temporal lobe?

Processes auditory information, language, and autobiographical memory.

What is Wernicke's area associated with?

Fluent but nonsensical speech.

What does the occipital lobe process?

Visual information.

What is the function of the basal ganglia?

Controls movement and motor planning.

What is the role of the limbic system?

Involved in emotion, motivation, learning, and memory.

What does the thalamus do?

Acts as a relay center for incoming sensory information.

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

Regulates basic body functions like eating and thirst.

What role does the amygdala play?

Involved in emotion, aggression, fear, and arousal.

What is the function of the hippocampus?

Involved in spatial memory.

What does the cerebellum control?

Fine muscle movement and balance.

What is the brain stem's role?

Connects the spinal cord to the cerebral cortex.

What does the midbrain do?

Tracks visual stimuli and reflexes triggered by sound.

What is the function of the pons?

Conveys information between the cerebral cortex and cerebellum.

What does the medulla regulate?

Vital functions like breathing.

What is the spinal cord?

A thick bundle of nerves attaching the brain to the body.

What is the function of rods in vision?

Allows us to see in low levels of light.

What is the role of cones in vision?

Allows us to see color.

What is trichromatic theory?

Color vision is based on sensitivity to red, green, and blue.

What does opponent process theory state?

We perceive colors in terms of three pairs of opponent colors.

What are the stages of sleep?

Stage 1: light sleep; Stage 2: moderate sleep; Stage 3: deep sleep; Stage 4: deep sleep; Stage 5: REM sleep.

What is insomnia?

Inability to fall or stay asleep.

What is sleepwalking?

Activity while asleep.

What is sleep apnea?

A disorder caused by a blockage of the airway during sleep.

What is narcolepsy?

A disorder characterized by rapid and unexpected onset of sleep.

What is REM behavior disorder?

When people act out their dreams during REM sleep.

What is operant conditioning?

Using reinforcement and punishments to control behavior.

What is positive reinforcement?

Addition of a pleasant stimulus to increase desired behavior.

What is negative reinforcement?

Removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase desired behavior.

What is positive punishment?

Addition of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

What is negative punishment?

Removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

What are the four schedules of reinforcement?

Fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, variable ratio.

What is a fixed interval schedule?

Receiving reinforcement after a certain amount of time.

What is a fixed ratio schedule?

Receiving reinforcement after a set number of responses.

What is a variable interval schedule?

Receiving reinforcement after an average amount of time.

What is a variable ratio schedule?

Receiving reinforcement after an average number of tasks done.

What are the two most effective study techniques?

Self testing and distributed practice.

What is sensory memory?

Iconic or echoic information retained for 1-3 seconds with large capacity.

What is short term memory?

Information retained for about 20 seconds, with a magic number of 7 plus or minus 2.

What is long term memory?

Memory that stays for a long time, with larger capacity and can endure from minutes to decades.

What is explicit memory?

Memories we recall intentionally.

What are the subtypes of explicit memory?

Semantic memory and episodic memory.

What is implicit memory?

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously.

What are the types of implicit memory?

Procedural memory and priming.

What are schemas?

Frames of reference for interpreting new situations.

What is encoding in relation to memory?

The process of getting information into our memory banks.

What is storage in relation to memory?

The process of keeping information in memory.

What is retrieval in relation to memory?

The act of remembering things stored in long term memory.

What is state dependent learning?

Better retrieval when physiological state matches encoding state.

What is context dependent learning?

Better retrieval when external context matches retrieval context.

What is retrograde amnesia?

Loss of memories from the past.

What is anterograde amnesia?

Inability to encode new memories from experiences.

What are the stages of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations.

What is the sensorimotor stage?

Birth to 2 years; knowledge through physical experiences.

What is the preoperational stage?

Ages 2-7; symbolic play and egocentrism.

What is the concrete operations stage?

Ages 7-11; can perform mental operations for physical events.

What is the formal operations stage?

Ages 11 and up; able to engage in hypothetical reasoning.

What is the false-belief task?

A procedure to assess theory of mind in children.

What are the four attachment styles?

Secure, avoidant, resistant, disorganized.

What is Kohlberg's model of morality?

Three stages: preconventional, conventional, postconventional.

What characterizes preconventional morality?

Determining right and wrong by rewards and punishments.

What characterizes conventional morality?

Other people's views matter; motivated to avoid blame.

What characterizes postconventional morality?

Judging actions based on abstract ethical principles.

What are the major theories of emotion?

Discrete emotions theory, James-Lange theory, Canon-Bard theory, two-factor theory.

What is discrete emotions theory?

A theory that humans experience a small number of distinct emotions rooted in biology.

What does the James-Lange theory propose?

Emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli.

What does the Cannon-Bard theory suggest?

An emotion-provoking event leads simultaneously to an emotion and bodily reactions.

What is the two-factor theory of emotion?

Emotions are produced by an undifferentiated state of arousal along with an explanation of that arousal.