Lecture Notes Review - Vocabulary Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards for Genetics, Chromosome, Gene, Allele, Homologous, Chromatid, Reduction, Recombination, Genotype, Phenotype, Recessive, Dominant, Punnett square, Sex-linked, Codominant incomplete dominance, test cross, Zygote, Haploid, Diploid, Evolution Natural selection Adaptation Population Species Variation Evolution Fitness Selection Pressure Selective advantage Founder effect, Bottleneck effect, Stabilizing selection, Disruptive selection, Directional selection, Artificial selection, Fossil Vestigial structure Speciation Divergent evolution Convergent evolution Genetic drift Mutation Gene flow Sexual selection Nonrandom mating Isolating mechanism Pre-zygotic isolating mechanism Post-zygotic isolating mechanism Diversity of Life Clade Node Branch Common ancestor Trait Divergent evolution Speciation Gene Evolution Animals, Anatomy and Physiology, Plants, and Student Responsibilities.

Gene

A unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring.

Allele

One of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome.

Homologous

Having the same relation or structure, particularly referring to chromosomes.

Chromatid

One half of two identical copies of a replicated chromosome.

Reduction

The process where the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half during the separation of homologous chromosomes in diploid cells.

Recombination

The rearrangement of genetic material, especially by crossing over in chromosomes or by the artificial joining of segments of DNA.

Genotype

The genetic constitution of an individual organism.

Phenotype

The set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Recessive

Relating to or denoting heritable characteristics controlled by genes which are expressed in offspring only when inherited from both parents, i.e., when not masked by a dominant characteristic inherited from one parent.

Dominant

Relating to or denoting heritable characteristics controlled by genes which are expressed in offspring even when inherited from only one parent.

Punnett Square

A diagram that is used to predict an outcome of a particular cross or breeding experiment.

Sex-linked

A trait associated with a gene that is carried only by the male or female parent.

Codominant

A relationship between two versions of a gene. Individuals receive one version of a gene, called an allele, from each parent. If the alleles are different, the dominant allele will be expressed, while the effect of the other allele, called recessive, is masked.

Incomplete Dominance

A form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely expressed over its paired allele. This results in a third phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the phenotypes of both alleles.

Test Cross

An experimental cross of an individual organism of dominant phenotype but unknown genotype and an organism with a recessive phenotype and known genotype.

Zygote

A diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum.

Haploid

Having a single set of unpaired chromosomes.

Diploid

Containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

Evolution

The process by which different kinds of living organisms are believed to have developed and diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth.

Natural Selection

The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Adaptation

The process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects.

Population

A community of animals, plants, or people inhabiting a particular region or area.

Species

A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding.

Variation

Any difference between cells, individual organisms, or groups of organisms of any species caused either by genetic differences or by the effect of environmental factors.

Fitness

The condition of being physically fit and healthy.

Selection Pressure

he effect of the environment which results in differential reproductive success of individuals or genotypes.

Founder Effect

The evolutionary process by which a new population arises from a small number of individuals that colonize a new habitat.

Bottleneck Effect

A sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events (such as famines, earthquakes, floods, fires, disease, or droughts) or human activities (such as genocide).

Stabilizing Selection

A type of natural selection in which the population mean stabilizes on a particular non-extreme trait value.

Disruptive Selection

Describes changes in population genetics in which extreme values for a trait are favored over intermediate values.

Directional Selection

A mode of natural selection in which a single phenotype is favored, causing the allele frequency to continuously shift in one direction.

Artificial Selection

The intentional reproduction of individuals in a population that have desirable traits.

Fossil

The remains or impression of a prehistoric organism preserved in petrified form or as a mold or cast in rock.

Vestigial Structure

A structure in an organism that has lost all or most of its original function in the course of evolution.

Speciation

The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.

Divergent Evolution

The accumulation of differences between groups which can lead to the formation of new species.

Convergent Evolution

The process whereby organisms not closely related (not monophyletic), independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches.

Genetic Drift

A mechanism of evolution in which allele frequencies of a population change over generations due to chance (sampling error) .

Gene Flow

The transfer of genetic variation from one population to another.

Sexual Selection

Natural selection arising through preference by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex.

Nonrandom Mating

When individuals do not choose mates randomly.

Isolating Mechanism

The existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede members of two species from producing viable, fertile offspring.

Pre-zygotic Isolating Mechanism

A form of reproductive isolation that occurs before zygote formation.

Post-zygotic Isolating Mechanism

A form of reproductive isolation that occurs after zygote formation.

Diversity of Life

The variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem.

Clade

A group of organisms believed to have evolved from a common ancestor, according to the principles of cladistics.

Node

A branching point on a cladogram or phylogenetic tree, representing a common ancestor.

Branch

A line on a cladogram or phylogenetic tree, representing a lineage of organisms.

Common Ancestor

An ancestor that two or more descendants have in common.

Trait

A distinct feature or characteristic of an organism.

Inferior Vena Cava

The inferior vena cava carries deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the right atrium of the heart.

Superior Vena Cava

The superior vena cava carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the right atrium of the heart.

Atria

The upper chambers of the heart that receive blood from the veins.

Ventricle

The lower chambers of the heart that pump blood to the arteries.

Atrioventricular Valve

Valves located between the atria and ventricles that prevent backflow of blood.

Semilunar Valve

Valves located at the exit of each ventricle of the heart that prevent backflow of blood.

Pulmonary Arteries

The part of the blood circulatory system of vertebrates that conveys blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and returns it to the left atrium of the heart.

Pulmonary Veins

Large blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.

Capillaries

Any of the fine branching blood vessels that form a network between the arterioles and venules.

Veins

Any of the tubes forming part of the blood circulation system of the body, carrying in most cases oxygen-depleted blood toward the heart.

Arteries

Any of the muscular tubes forming part of the circulation system by which blood (mainly that which has been oxygenated) is conveyed from the heart to all parts of the body.

Aorta

The main artery of the body, supplying oxygenated blood to the circulatory system.

Antigens

Proteins that trigger an immune response in the body.

Antibodies

Proteins produced by the body's immune system to fight off foreign invaders.

Enzyme

A substance produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction.

Active Site

The region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.

Nose/Nostrils (Nasal Cavity)

The external opening of the respiratory tract.

Pharynx

The cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the esophagus.

Larynx

The hollow muscular organ forming an air passage to the lungs and holding the vocal cords in humans and other mammals; the voice box.

Epiglottis

A flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue, which is depressed during swallowing to cover the opening of the trachea.

Trachea

A large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage, extending from the larynx to the bronchial tubes and conveying air to and from the lungs; the windpipe.

Bronchi/us

Any of the major air passages of the lungs which diverge from the windpipe (trachea).

Bronchiole(s)

Any of the minute branches into which a bronchus divides.

Alveolar Sacs

Terminal dilation of the respiratory bronchioles; sacs made up of alveoli.

Alveoli

Any of the many tiny air sacs of the lungs which allow for rapid gaseous exchange.

Diaphragm

A large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing.

Ribs

A series of curved bones articulated in pairs to the spine and protecting the thoracic cavity.

Intercostal Muscles

The muscles between the ribs.

Lungs

Each of the pair of organs situated within the rib cage, consisting of elastic sacs with branching passages into which air is drawn, so that oxygen can pass into the blood and carbon dioxide be removed.

Mouth

Breaks down food into smaller pieces, which are eventually absorbed.

Teeth

Hard, bony enamel-coated structures in the jaws of most vertebrates, used for biting and chewing.

Tongue

The fleshy muscular organ in the mouth of a mammal, used for tasting, licking, swallowing, and articulating speech.

Salivary Glands

Glands which secrete saliva to help begin digestion.

Esophagus

The part of the alimentary canal which connects the throat to the stomach.

Stomach

The internal organ in which the major part of the digestion of food occurs.

Gallbladder

A membranous sac in which bile from the liver is stored.

Pancreas

A large gland behind the stomach which secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum.

Bile Duct

The duct that conveys bile from the gallbladder and the liver to the duodenum.

Small Intestine

The part of the intestine that runs between the stomach and the large intestine; the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum collectively.

Duodenum

The first part of the small intestine immediately beyond the stomach, leading to the jejunum.

Jejunum

The middle part of the small intestine between the duodenum and ileum.

Ileum

The final section of the small intestine, leading into the large intestine.

Large Intestine

The cecum, colon, and rectum collectively.

Rectum

The final section of the large intestine, terminating at the anus.

Substrate

A reactant in a biochemical reaction.

Lock-and-Key

A model describing enzymes as specific to one substrate.

Induced Fit

A model describing enzymes change shape when substrate binds.

Denature

(of a protein or other biological macromolecule) lose its characteristic three-dimensional structure (and hence functional properties) by heat, acidity, or other effects that disrupt its molecular conformation.

Mucous

A slippery secretion of mucous membranes.

Gas Exchange

The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and its environment.