Geol 102 shomo mini test 1

Geology

The study of the natural aspects of Earth, describing its plants composition, behavior, and history

“geoscience”

Geology is interconnected with all other sciences

Atmosphere

Earth’s Air system

Hydrosphere

Earth’s water system

Lithosphere/Geosphere

Earth’s Land, mineral, and rocks system

Bioshpere

The system or zone of life on earth

The sun

Externally drives the Earth’s system

Heat from the earth’s core

Internally Drives the earth’s system

Normal and inevitable

Natural environmental change is

Sustainability

Working towards balance - taking from earth to meet present needs to ensure economic growth while protecting the environment

Stewardship

deliberate living in a responsible/ethical manner

Standard of living

1. quality of life

2. level of material comfort

3. how well off you are

The number one environmental problem

Population growth is

10 billion +

The world population may increase to _______ by 2050!

Professor Frank Fenner (who helped eradicate smallpox) predicts humans will be extinct in 100 years because of:

1. overpopulation

2. environmental destruction

3. climate change

Contribution factors to hazardous earth processes

1. population increase has forced people to live in hazardous areas

2. land-use changes, urbanization and deforestation increase flood hazards and slope failures

3. burning fossil fuels has contributed to the warming of the atmosphere, altering global circulation patterns in the atmosphere and ocean

Public perception

plays a role in determining if something is a risk or hazard

Minerals

1. naturally occuring

2. inorganic, solid

3. ordered molecular structure

4. definite chemical composition

rocks

a solid aggregate (mixture) of minerals

Elements

simplest form of matter (92 naturally occurring building blocks of matter)

Atom

Smallest particle of an element (has all the characteristics of an element)

Compound

formed when 2 or more elements are chemically combined (may not reflect the properties of the Indvidual elements it’s made of

Molecule

smallest particle of a compound (made of atoms bonded together)

“stuff”

Elements and compounds

Particles

atoms and molecules

H₂O (water)

2 elements 3 atoms

NaCl (halite)

2 elements 2 atoms

CaCO₃ (calcium carbonate)

3 elements 5 atoms

Compounds

Most of the 4000+ minerals known are natural combinations of 2 or more elements chemically bonded

Native elements

made of only one kind of atom (only a few are in this category)

SiO₂

Quartz (2 elements 3 atoms)

CaSO₄

Gypsum (3 elements 6 atoms)

(NaAlSi₃O₈)

Albite (4 elements 13 atoms)

Rock-Forming minerals

1. common minerals that make up most rocks of earth’s crust

2. only a few dozen of the 4000+ minerals

3. composed of the top 8 elements that make up over 88% of the earths crust

4. grouped by chemical composition

Elements in the geosphere/lithosphere

1. oxygen is the most abundant

2. the top 2 elements (O and Si) make up about 75% of the earth’s geosphere/lithosphere

Silicates

1. largest group of minerals

2. comprise most rock-forming minerals

3. (SiO₄) tetrahedron is the fundamental building block of silicate minerals

4. Types of these structures include single tetrahydra, single chain, double chains, sheets, and 3 dimensional networks

Non-Silicates

1. classes based on chemical composition and structure

2. comprises of 8% of the earth’s crust

Carbonates (CO₃)^-2

1. make up most limestone

2. LOTS in the Shenandoah valley

3. EX: Calcite (CaCO₃)

Halides (Cl^- , Br^- ,F^-)

EX: Halite (salt)

Oxides (O^-2)

EX: hematite, water ice, magnetite

Sulfides (S^-2)

Ex: galena, pyrite (Fools gold)

Sulfates (SO₄)^-2

Ex: gypsum

list of Native elements

1. gold

2. graphite

3. diamond

4. platinum

5. copper

6. bronze

7. silver

8. sulfur

Ore

any mineral mined for profit

hematite

ore of iron

halite

ore of salt

sapherite

ore of zinc

bauxite

ore of aluminum

galena

ore of lead

gypsum

mined for use in construction

nucleus

1. most of an atoms mass is here

2. made of protons and nuetrons

92, 4000

There are _____ naturally-occurring elements that Mother Nature uses to create the over _______ minerals known

The TOP 2 elements making up minerals in Earth’s crust are

1. oxygen (46%)

2. silicon (28%)

3 main ways minerals form in nature

1. Precipitation from aqueous solution

2. Crystallization from magma

3. Biological precipitation by organisms

examples of minerals that have a biological influence.

1. Calcite/aragonite (CaCO₃) in shells, corals, clams

2. Silica (SiO₂) in radiolaria skeletons → chert

3. Hydroxycarbonate apatite in bones/teeth

what percent of minerals are silicates

92%

most abundant mineral

quartz

Largest group of silicates

feldspars

what percent of minerals are non silicates

8%

what ore mineral group are iron and aluminum

oxides

mineral group for lead and copper

sulfides

mineral that makes up bones and teeth

apatite

How many pounds of minerals must be provides for every person in the US

38016

Aluminum

• Abundance: _____ is the most abundant metal in Earth’s crust, but it is never found as a pure metal in nature.

• Source: Bauxite is the primary ore of _____, containing gibbsite, boehmite, and diaspore; it provides ~99% of the world’s _____.

• Appearance: Bauxite is typically reddish-brown, white, tan, or yellowish, with a dull, earthy luster resembling clay or soil.

• Formation: Bauxite forms in tropical/subtropical climates through weathering and leaching of _____-rich rocks like feldspar.

• Global Reserves: Major bauxite-producing countries include Australia, Guinea, Jamaica, and Brazil.

• Mining Methods: ~85–90% of bauxite mining is surface mining; underground mining uses techniques like block caving, stoping, and room-and-pillar.

• Challenges: Excess water inflow is a common issue in underground mines, especially in karst landscapes.

• Uses of Bauxite: About 85% is refined into alumina for _____ metal, 10% for chemicals/abrasives/refractories, and 5% for abrasives and compounds.

• Uses of _____: Lightweight, strong, and corrosion-resistant; used in packaging, transportation, construction, and electrical applications.

• Alternatives: Other potential _____ sources (kaolin clay, oil shales, anorthosite, coal waste) remain experimental due to higher costs.

Antimony

• Source: A native element, _____ is primarily extracted from stibnite (Sb₂S₃), which is 72% _____ and 28% sulfur.

• Occurrence: _____ rarely occurs in native metallic form; it usually combines with sulfur and other elements into over 100 minerals, but only stibnite is mined commercially.

• Production: Over 75% of world _____ supply comes from China; other producers include Russia, South Africa, Tajikistan, Bolivia, the U.S., and others.

• By-products: _____ is also obtained during smelting of copper, silver, and gold ores, as well as from recycling old lead-acid batteries.

• Properties: Metallic luster, orthorhombic crystal system, hardness ~2, color lead-gray (tarnishing black/iridescent).

• Industrial Uses: _____ hardens lead for storage batteries, cable sheaths, bearing metal, type metal, solder, collapsible tubes, foil, pipes, and semiconductors.

• Chemical Uses: Salts of _____ are used in rubber, textiles, medicine, glassmaking, and pigments (notably bright yellow oxide).

• Fireproofing: In the U.S., the most important use of _____ is in flame retardants for plastics, textiles, and rubber (federally required for certain children’s clothing).

• Alloys: _____ forms alloys such as Babbitt metal (with tin, copper, lead) for machine bearings, and pewter (with tin) for decorative objects.

• Special Property: One of few substances (with water and bismuth) that expands upon freezing, making it historically important for sharp printing type molds

Beryllium

• Properties: _____ is a silver-white, very light metal with a high melting point of 2349 °F (1287 °C).

• Ores: Found mainly in bertrandite (Be₄Si₂O₇(OH)₂, Utah) and beryl (Be₃Al₂(SiO₃)₆); beryl varieties include emerald, aquamarine, heliodor, and morganite.

• Appearance: Bertrandite is colorless to pale yellow; beryl can be green, blue, yellow, pink, or colorless, often gem-quality.

• Mining: Bertrandite in Utah supplies ~90% of the world’s _____; China produces most of the rest, with small amounts from Mozambique and others.

• U.S. Role: The U.S. is a net importer of ores but a net exporter of finished _____ alloys and compounds.

• Exploration: Bertrandite cannot be recognized visually; exploration requires drilling, sampling, mapping, and selective stockpiling before processing.

• Alloys: Over 70% of _____ consumption is in alloys, valued for light weight, strength, high melting point, and elasticity.

• Industrial Uses: Applications include aerospace, defense, automobiles, oil/gas drilling, electronics, springs, gears, and non-sparking tools (beryllium bronze).

• Nuclear Uses: Metal and oxide rods of _____ are used to control nuclear reactions due to strong neutron absorption.

• Health & Safety: Dust and fumes of _____ are toxic; strict regulations (e.g., U.S. Clean Air Act) mandate careful handling.

Chromium

• Properties: _____ (Cr) is a hard, bluish metallic element.

• Ore: The only ore of _____ is chromite (Fe,Mg)Cr2O4(Fe,Mg)Cr₂O₄(Fe,Mg)Cr2​O4​.

• Reserves: About 99% of the world’s chromite is in southern Africa and Zimbabwe; estimated global reserves ~11 billion tons.

• Mining Nations: Major chromite producers include South Africa, Kazakhstan, India, and the U.S.; China is the largest consumer but not a major producer.

• Mining Methods: Extraction depends on deposit type (stratiform vs. podiform, high vs. low grade, surface vs. subsurface); surface mining is usually preferred when feasible.

• Beneficiation: Processing (crushing, separating, smelting, refining) varies with ore characteristics; high-grade ores may need only hand sorting, while mixed ores require more treatment.

• Appearance: Chromite is black to brownish black with submetallic luster, brown streak, and hardness ~5.5.

• Steel Alloys: Most _____ is used in stainless steel production, giving it strength, hardness, and corrosion resistance.

• Superalloys: _____ is a key component in heat-resistant steels and military-grade “superalloys.”

• Chemical Uses: _____ compounds are used in tanning leather, textile dyes (yellow), and some industrial chemicals.

Cobalt

• Properties: _____ (Co) is a bluish-gray, shiny, brittle metallic element with magnetic properties similar to iron.

• Occurrence: There are no significant minerals of _____; it is mostly obtained as a by-product of nickel ore refining.

• Production: Principal producers include Congo (Kinshasa), Russia, Australia, Philippines, Cuba, Madagascar, and Canada.

• U.S. Role: The U.S. consumes about one-third of world production but has only low-grade _____ resources that are not economically feasible to mine.

• Reserves: Identified world resources total ~25 million tons; the U.S. has about 1 million tons available in nickel by-products.

• Ocean Nodules: Large amounts of _____ exist in manganese nodules on the ocean floor, but recovery is not currently cost-effective.

• Imports: The U.S. imports all primary _____ (metal, salts, oxide), mainly from Norway, Finland, Canada, and Russia.

• Traditional Uses: Civilizations have long used _____ to create deep blue glass, ceramics, pottery, tiles, and pigments.

• Industrial Uses: Superalloys with _____ are essential for jet engines, gas turbines, cutting tools, and strong magnets; superalloys account for ~50% of annual use.

• Medical/Other Uses: The isotope _____-60 produces gamma rays for sterilizing medical supplies/food, industrial testing, and cancer treatment.

copper

• Properties: _____ (Cu) is ductile, malleable, and an excellent conductor of electricity (second only to silver).

• Ores: Found in minerals such as azurite, malachite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, and bornite; most _____ comes from chalcopyrite.

• Producers: The world’s leading producer is Chile, followed by Congo, Peru, China, and the U.S.

• U.S. Production: Arizona produces the majority of U.S. _____, with additional output from Utah, New Mexico, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, and Nevada.

• Reserves: Estimated accessible reserves are ~1.6 billion tons, with another 700 million tons in deep-sea nodules (not yet commercially viable).

• Mining Methods: Surface mining is the main extraction method globally; recycling provides ~⅓ of U.S. annual _____ supply.

• Appearance (Chalcopyrite): Brass yellow color, metallic luster, greenish-black streak, hardness ~3.5, with irregular fracture and possible iridescent tarnish.

• Electrical Uses: Pure _____ is widely used in power transmission, building wiring, motors, transformers, telecom cables, and electronic circuitry.

• Construction Uses: Tubing for plumbing, heating, air conditioning, roofing, flashing, and electroplated coatings.

• Alloys & Other Uses: As brass/bronze (with tin, zinc, lead, etc.) in plumbing fixtures, machine parts, coinage, ammunition, hardware; also an essential micronutrient in animal feed and fertilizers.

• first mineral known to man

Diamond (pipes, placer deposits)

• Type & Formula: _____ is a native element mineral with chemical formula C.

• Physical Properties: Streak colorless, Mohs hardness 10 (hardest natural substance), crystal system isometric, luster adamantine, fracture conchoidal.

• Color: Typically yellow, brown, or gray to colorless; less commonly blue, green, black, white, pink, violet, orange, purple, or red.

• Rarity: Requires extreme temperature and pressure to form; natural _____ is one of the most valuable commodities by weight.

• Global Occurrence: Found in 35 countries; small numbers occur in the U.S. (e.g., Colorado). Major producers: Russia, Congo, Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe.

• Geological Sources: Found in kimberlites (volcanic pipes) and in placer deposits (stream sands where weathered crystals accumulate).

• Mining Methods: Mostly open-pit; fewer than 30% underground. Open pits may last 2–50 years; underground mines in South Africa reach depths >4 km.

• Production Examples: Finsch mine (South Africa) produced ~5 million carats/year (1981–1991). Argyle mine (Australia) peaked at 39 million carats/year.

• Synthetic vs Natural: Synthetic _____ dominates industrial use due to controlled purity and consistent properties.

• Uses: Hardness makes it ideal for cutting, grinding, drilling. Used in steel drill bits for wells (water, oil, gas), in metal machining, and as abrasives.

feldspar

• Type & Classification: _____ is a silicate mineral group with alumina + silica (SiO₂) in its chemistry.

• Formula: General chemical formulas include KAlSi₃O₈ – NaAlSi₃O₈ – CaAl₂Si₂O₈.

• Physical Properties: White streak, hardness 6–6.5, triclinic/monoclinic crystal systems, vitreous luster, conchoidal/uneven fracture.

• Color: Commonly pink, white, gray, brown.

• Abundance: The most abundant mineral group on Earth, making up ~60% of exposed rocks, soils, and sediments.

• Varieties: Includes orthoclase, microcline, and plagioclase.

• U.S. Production: Top states include North Carolina, Virginia, California, Oklahoma, Idaho, Georgia, and South Dakota.

• Mining: Extracted from granite plutons, pegmatites, and sands; mined mostly by open-pit methods, then drilled, blasted, broken, hauled, and processed.

• Uses: Key in ceramics and glass industries; acts as a flux to lower melting temperature. Also used for tiles, dinnerware, bathroom fixtures.

• Substitutes: Could be replaced by pyrophyllite, clays, talc, or feldspar-silica mixtures, but abundance makes substitution unnecessary.

gold

• Type & Classification: _____ is a native element (element #79, symbol Au).

• Physical Properties: Streak = shining yellow; Mohs hardness 2.5–3; isometric crystal system; metallic luster; jagged fracture; color = gold.

• History/Significance: Probably the oldest precious metal known to humans—wars fought over it, countless lives lost for it.

• Major Producers: South Africa has ~½ of world resources; also significant in U.S., Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, and Russia.

• Deposit Types: Found in lode deposits (veins in rock) and placer deposits (eroded into rivers/streams).

• By-Product Recovery: Also recovered from copper and silver mining.

• Resource Estimates: ~100,000 tons left to be mined; ~20% of world’s resources come as by-products of copper and silver ore.

• U.S. Production: Nevada is the top producer, followed by Alaska; most U.S. production comes from ~30 mines.

• Uses: Jewelry and art (primary use), electronics (important because of chemical stability and conductivity), dentistry, coins, ingots, electroplating, instruments.

• Currency Role: Historically used as a monetary standard (1792 Congress established gold + silver standard); U.S. Treasury still holds large stockpiles.

gypsum

• Type & Classification: _____ is a sulfate mineral (CaSO₄·2H₂O).

• Physical Properties: Streak = white; Mohs hardness = 1.5–2 (very soft); monoclinic crystal system; vitreous luster; conchoidal fracture; colorless or white.

• Forms: Occurs as crystals and as massive _____ rock.

• Formation: Develops in lagoons where calcium + sulfate-rich seawater evaporates and is replenished, producing thick beds. Commonly associated with rock salt and sulfur.

• Appearance: Can form large, attractive crystals (sometimes extremely large and colored).

• Mining: Mostly surface mined; produced in ~19 U.S. states. Top producers: Oklahoma, Iowa, Nevada, Texas, California (≈⅔ of U.S. production).

• Global Production: Over 90 countries mine it; significant producers include Canada, Mexico, and Spain.

• Mining Method: Open-pit benches are drilled and blasted; ~1 kg of explosives per ton. Softness allows drilling at ~23 ft/min; ammonium nitrate often used.

• U.S. Consumption: Over 30 million tons annually; the U.S. is the world’s largest wallboard consumer (>30 billion sq. ft. per year).

• Uses: Wallboard + plaster (most important), cement manufacture, agriculture, small amounts in glassmaking and other industrial applications.

Halite/Salt

• Type & Classification: _____ is a halide mineral with formula NaCl.

• Physical Properties: Streak = white; Mohs hardness = 2–2.5; isometric crystals; vitreous luster; conchoidal fracture; colorless/white, but may also appear blue, purple, red, pink, yellow, orange, or gray.

• Other Names: Also called table _____ or rock _____.

• Biological Role: Essential for life of humans and animals; major use in food preparation worldwide.

• Mining Method 1: Room-and-pillar underground mining leaves “pillars” to support the roof while extracting the rest.

• Mining Method 2: Solution mining dissolves underground deposits with a solvent; brine is pumped out and evaporated.

• Mining Method 3: Seawater evaporation in interconnected ponds (takes 2–5 years for harvest).

• Mining Method 4: Inland solar evaporation from salt lakes, which collect dissolved minerals due to low elevation.

• Industrial Use: ~40% used in chemical industry (NaOH, soda ash, HCl, chlorine, metallic sodium).

• Other Uses: ~40% as a de-icer on roads; remainder in manufacturing (rubber, goods), agriculture, food processing (including table ____).

Kaolinite

• Type & Classification: _____ is a phyllosilicate mineral with formula Al₂Si₂O₅(OH)₄.

• Formation: Forms from the chemical weathering of feldspar or other aluminum silicate minerals.

• Appearance: Usually white, sometimes with red (iron oxide), blue, or brown tints from impurities.

• Physical Properties: Streak = white; Mohs hardness = 2–2.5; triclinic crystal system.

• Luster & Fracture: Pearly to dull earthy luster; irregular, uneven, conchoidal, sub-conchoidal, or micaceous fracture.

• Structure: A layered silicate clay mineral with low shrink–swell capacity and low cation-exchange capacity.

• Industrial Use 1: Major use is in paper production (≈48% of kaolin consumption in 2013).

• Industrial Use 2: Also used in ceramics, paint, rubber, adhesives, light bulbs, masonry whitewash, absorbents, soap, and smoking pipes.

• Agricultural Use: Employed in organic farming as a pest control material.

• Medical Use: Ingredient in medicines for diarrhea, nausea, and other digestive issues.

Lithium

• Type & Classification: _____ is an element (silicate minerals/ores) with common sources: petalite, lepidolite, and spodumene.

• Discovery & Sources: First discovered in petalite; also found in lepidolite and spodumene, especially in pegmatite deposits where magma cools slowly.

• Crystal & Physical Properties: Crystal system = monoclinic; streak = white/colorless (petalite); Mohs hardness varies (2.5–3 lepidolite, 6–6.5 petalite, 6.5–7 spodumene).

• Appearance: Purple, rosy, silver, gray (lepidolite); grey or pink (petalite); grayish white, pale purple, pale green (spodumene).

• Luster & Fracture: Vitreous to pearly luster; fracture ranges from subconchoidal (petalite/spodumene) to uneven (lepidolite).

• Major Producers: Australia and Chile are the world’s largest producers of _____.

• Mining Method 1: Extracted from pegmatites (igneous rock deposits with large crystals).

• Mining Method 2: Recovered from subsurface brines through solar evaporation over 12–18 months, then treated with soda ash to yield lithium carbonate.

• Industrial Uses: Ceramics, glass, lubricants, greases, rocket propellants, vitamin A synthesis, silver solders, buoyancy devices, alloys with aluminum/magnesium.

• Modern Uses: Over 80% of mined _____ is used in batteries; also used in medicine (lithium carbonate/citrate) to treat gout and mental illness.

Manganese

• Basic Info: Element #25, symbol Mn, is a gray-white, brittle but hard metal with a pinkish tinge.

• Discovery: Found in 1774 by Johann Gahn.

• Occurrence: Never found as a free metal; main ore mineral is pyrolusite (MnO₂).

• Properties: Streak = black to bluish black; Mohs hardness = 2–6.5; crystal system = tetragonal.

• Appearance: Darkish, black to lighter grey, sometimes bluish; luster = metallic, dull, earthy; fracture = uneven.

• World Supply: The U.S., Japan, and Western Europe are nearly deficient in mineable manganese; South Africa holds over 70% of reserves.

• Mining: Mostly extracted in open-pit mines with standard overburden removal; some underground mining (room-and-pillar) in South Africa and Ukraine.

• Steel Industry: About 24% of use is in construction materials (I-beams), 14% in machinery, and 13% in transportation.

• Industrial Compounds: MnO₂ used in ferroalloys, dry cell batteries, glass decolorization, and paints. MnSO₄ used as a chemical intermediate and nutrient in feed/fertilizers.

• Other Uses: Used in brick and ceramic coloring, alloys with copper and aluminum, chemical oxidizers, and catalysts. KMnO₄ is used as a bactericide, algicide, and oxidant in water treatment and organic synthesis.

Platinum

• Basic Info: Element #78, symbol Pt, is a dense, silvery-gray metal.

• Group: Belongs to the platinum group metals (PGM), which are among the rarest in Earth’s crust.

• Other PGMs: Include Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, and Pt; only platinum and palladium are found in pure form in nature.

• Classification: Type = element (minerals/ores of); mineral classification = native element.

• Formula: Chemical formula = Pt.

• Properties: Streak = grayish white; Mohs hardness = 4–4.5; crystal system = isometric.

• Appearance: Dark gray, steel gray, whitish gray; luster = metallic; fracture = jagged.

• Reactivity: PGMs have high melting points, are very dense, and are non-reactive with other elements.

• Industrial Uses: Used as a key catalyst in catalytic converters and in producing acids, organic chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.

• Other Uses: Used in glass fiber production, electronic components, dental alloys, and jewelry.

quartz

• Basic Info: It is one of the most common minerals in Earth’s crust. It is a chemical compound of silicon dioxide (SiO2).

• Type: Classified as a silicate.

• Crystal System: It has a hexagonal crystal system.

• Hardness: Mohs hardness = 7.

• Streak & Fracture: Streak = white; fracture = conchoidal.

• Colors: Pure form is clear; varieties include purple (amethyst), white (milky), black (smoky), pink (rose), yellow/orange (citrine).

• Mining: Major producers of natural crystals are the United States (especially Arkansas) and Brazil.

• Cultured Crystals: Used in industry because natural crystals have too many chemical impurities and physical flaws.

• Special Property: It is piezoelectric, meaning it generates electrical charges when pressure is applied.

• Uses: Electronics-grade crystals are used in computers, cell phones, TVs, radios, games, frequency control devices, and electronic filters.

Silica (quartz sand)

• Basic Info: Also called quartz sand, it is composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2).

• Type: It is classified as a mineral.

• Metallic Character: Silicon (Si) is a semi-metallic or metalloid because it has some metallic characteristics.

• Natural Occurrence: Silicon is never found in its natural state; it is combined with oxygen as the silicate (SiO4⁴⁻) ion in silica-rich rocks.

• Common Silicate Minerals: The most significant silicate minerals are feldspar and quartz.

• Mining Methods: It is mined using open-pit or dredging methods.

• Alloys: Ferrosilicon alloys improve the strength and quality of iron and steel products.

• Steel Uses: Ferrosilicon is used in stainless steels, carbon steels, and other alloy steels.

• Chemical Uses: Silicon is a starting material for silanes, silicones, fumed silica, and semiconductor-grade silicon.

• Electronics Uses: Semiconductor-grade silicon is used in the manufacture of silicon chips and solar cells.

rare earth elements (REE’s)

• Basic Info: They consist of scandium (Sc), yttrium (Y), and the 15 elements of the lanthanide series.

• Type: They are classified as elements (minerals/ores of).

• Common Minerals: One of the most common minerals containing them is monazite.

• Scandium: Scandium is the lightest element and is present in crustal rocks in amounts greater than lead and precious metals.

• Yttrium: Yttrium is chemically similar to the lanthanides and often occurs with other elements in the same minerals.

• Lanthanides: The lanthanides are elements with atomic numbers 57 through 71.

• Chemical Formula (Monazite): The formula is (Ce,La,Y,Th)(PO4).

• Mining Locations: They are primarily mined in China, the United States, and Australia.

• Uses in Energy: They are used in advanced automotive propulsion batteries, fuel cells, electric motors, high efficiency light bulbs, and wind turbine generators.

• Uses in Technology: They are also used in defense technologies (radar, sonar, guided weapons), computing, pollution abatement, metal alloying, and communications and high-tech applications.

silver

• Basic Info: It is a bright, metallic metal, and when untarnished, it has a white color.

• Type: It is classified as an element (native).

• Common Minerals/Ores: It is rarely found in native form and can occur in minerals such as argentite, chlorargyrite, and galena.

• Properties – Malleability/Ductility: It is malleable, meaning it can be hammered into thin sheets, and ductile, meaning it can be drawn into wire.

• Chemical Formula: The element symbol is Ag.

• Mohs Hardness: Hardness is between 2.5 and 3.

• Crystal System: It crystallizes in the isometric system.

• Mining Sources: It is mainly extracted from lead, zinc, gold, and copper ores. The most important ore mineral is argentite (Ag2S).

• Extraction: It is commonly extracted from ore by smelting or chemical leaching methods.

• Uses: It is used for jewelry, silverware, mirrors (best reflector of visible light), dental work, batteries, and electrical products.

talc

• Basic Info: It is the softest mineral on the Mohs hardness scale at 1 and forms mica-like flakes.

• Type: It is classified as a mineral.

• Chemical Formula: The chemical formula is Mg3Si4O10(OH)2.

• Streak: It leaves a white, pearl black streak.

• Mohs Hardness: Mohs hardness is 1.

• Crystal System: It crystallizes in the monoclinic and triclinic systems.

• Color: It can be white, brown, gray, or greenish.

• Luster: It has a pearly luster.

• Fracture/Cleavage: It has perfect cleavage in one direction, breaking into thin sheets, and has an uneven fracture.

• Uses: It is used in ceramics, paper, paint, roofing, plastics, cosmetics (including talcum powder), and as a lubricant.

Titanium/Rutile

• Basic Info: It is the most common and stable form of titanium dioxide found in nature.

• Type: It is classified as a mineral.

• Mineral Classification: It is an oxide.

• Chemical Formula: The chemical formula is TiO2.

• Streak: It leaves a bright red to dark red streak.

• Mohs Hardness: Mohs hardness ranges from 6.0 to 6.5.

• Crystal System: It crystallizes in the tetragonal ditetragonal dipyramidal system.

• Color: It can be reddish brown, red, pale yellow, pale blue, violet, rarely grass-green, or black.

• Luster: It has an adamantine to submetallic luster.

• Uses: It is primarily used as a source of titanium dioxide, in paints, plastics, paper products, sunscreen, food coloring, and certain optical and welding applications.

zinc

• Basic Info: It is a brittle, blue-gray, metallic element that becomes malleable at 100° C.

• Type: It is classified as an element (minerals/ores of).

• Mineral Classification: It is primarily found as a sulfide.

• Chemical Formula: The most common ore mineral, sphalerite, has the formula (Zn,Fe)S.

• Mohs Hardness: Ore minerals have a Mohs hardness of 3.5 to 4.

• Crystal System: It crystallizes in the isometric system.

• Color: Ore can appear brown, yellow, red, green, or black.

• Luster: It exhibits adamantine, resinous, or greasy luster.

• Relation to Mining: It is recovered from minerals like sphalerite, smithsonite, and zincite, and it is also recycled from scrap.

• Uses: It is used in alloys like brass, galvanizing iron and steel, making rubber and paint, batteries, TV screens, fluorescent lights, and is essential for human and animal health, enzyme function, and growth.