SLP final

What is a language difference? Define

A language difference is a variation in speech and language that is related to a person's cultural or linguistic background, not a disorder.

What is a language disorder

A language disorder is an impairment in the ability to understand (receptive language) or use (expressive language) spoken, written, or other symbolic language systems. It affects how a person comprehends, processes, or produces language, and it is not related to cultural or linguistic background.

A 5-year-old child who speaks only English and has difficulty forming complete sentences, struggles to understand directions,

Users of a language may differ in

• Accent – The way words are pronounced, often influenced by region or native language.

• Dialect – Variations in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation based on region or social group.

• Vocabulary – Word choice can vary between individuals, regions, or cultures.

• Grammar/syntax – Sentence structure and grammatical rules may differ among dialects or language users.

• Pragmatics – The social use of language, such as how people take turns in conversation, show politeness, or use body language.

• Rate and fluency – How fast or smoothly someone speaks.

• Code-switching

Is a dialect considered a disorder

No, a dialect is not considered a disorder.

A dialect is a rule-governed variation of a language spoken by a particular group of people. It includes differences in pronunciation (accent), grammar, vocabulary, and usage. Dialects are natural and valid forms of communication that reflect a person’s cultural, regional, or social background.

What is dialect prejudice?

Dialect prejudice is the unfair judgment or negative attitude toward someone based on the way they speak a particular dialect. It happens when people assume that certain dialects are “wrong,” “lazy,” or “less intelligent” compared to the standard or mainstream dialect.

This prejudice often reflects social bias, not actual differences in language ability. It can lead to:

• Discrimination in schools, workplaces, or legal settings

• Lower expectations for students who speak non-mainstream dialects

• Pressure to change or hide one’s way of speaking to fit in

Example:

A student who speaks African American English (AAE) might be unfairly seen as less capable just because of their dialect, even though AAE follows consistent and complex language rules.

What is translanguaging

Translanguaging is the process where multilingual speakers use all of their language resources—such as vocabulary, grammar, and expressions from different languages

(trans being two people using both) idk

switching between two languages aka genders

What is simultaneous bilingual

A simultaneous bilingual is a person who learns two languages at the same time, starting from birth or very early in life

acquisition

Acquisition in language development refers to the natural, unconscious process of learning a language through exposure and interaction, especially during early childhood.

What is sequential bilingual acquisition

Sequential bilingual acquisition is when a person learns a second language after the first language is already established. This usually happens after age 3, when the child has already begun developing their first language.

If L2 is introduced sequentially before a strong L1 foundation
has been established, L1 development may regress while L2 is
being acquired.

(sequence of events one happens first then the other one happens after it)

Is there a sensitive or critical period for learning a language? Why or why not

Yes, there is a sensitive period—and possibly a critical period—for learning a language, especially the first language. Why? The brain is more plastic (flexible) during early development, making it easier to absorb sounds, grammar, and vocabulary.

What is common underlying proficiency

Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) means that the skills you use to learn or understand your first language (L1) can help you learn your second language (L2)

The Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) model suggests that improving one language helps develop the other language as well. It’s important for parents to speak to their child in their strongest language because a strong first language (L1) makes learning a second language (L2) easier. Older students with a solid L1 foundation tend to perform better academically.

(like cups they all stack up on one another to help build up and better your language speaking)

What is the iceberg analogy

The iceberg analogy shows that the visible parts of language, like words and grammar, are just the tip of the iceberg. Beneath the surface are deeper skills, like thinking and problem-solving, that help with learning any language.

What does BICS stand for? How long

does it take to develop?

BICS stands for Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills. It refers to the everyday language skills needed for social interactions, like casual conversations with friends or talking to classmates. BICS usually takes about 2 years to develop, especially for new language learners

you use your biceps every day casually, if we workout it takes about 2 years

What does CALP stand for? How long does it take to develop?

CALP stands for Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency. It refers to the language skills needed for academic tasks, such as reading, writing, and understanding complex concepts in subjects like math, science, and literature. CALP typically takes about 5 to 7 years to fully develop, sometimes even 10 years in extreme cases

You’ve gotta put your learning calp on and do this homework and writing test for school you’ve gotta be here for like 5-7 years

What is the silent period?

The silent period refers to a phase in language learning, especially for second language learners, where the learner does not speak much or at all, but is actively listening and absorbing the new language

can be 3-6 months but can vary

What is language loss

Language loss refers to the process where an individual forgets or loses proficiency in a language that they once knew well. This can happen when someone stops using a language regularly or shifts to using another language more often.

What is interference or transfer

Interference (or transfer) refers to when a speaker’s knowledge of their first language (L1) affects how they use their second language (L2). This can lead to errors or differences in language because the rules or patterns of the first language are applied to the second one.

• Positive transfer: When the languages are similar, and the speaker applies the same rules correctly, leading to no mistakes.

  • Example: A Spanish speaker might easily say “hotel” in English because it’s the same word in both languages.

• Negative transfer: When the differences between languages cause mistakes in the second language.

  • Example: A French speaker might say “I have 20 years” in English, directly translating from “J’ai 20 ans,” because in French, they use “have” to express age.

What is fossilization

Fossilization happens when a person keeps making the same language mistakes over and over, even after they've been learning the language for a long time. These mistakes become stuck and don't improve, no matter how much more the person practices or learns.

Example:

If someone always says "I have 25 years old" instead of "I am 25 years old," they might keep saying it that way forever, even if they know better.

What other variable may impact language learning?

• Age: Younger learners often pick up languages faster and more easily, especially in terms of pronunciation.

• Motivation: A learner’s interest and desire to learn the language can significantly affect their success.

• Exposure: The more frequently and intensively a learner is exposed to the language, the better their chances of mastering it.

• Environment: Immersive environments, where the language is spoken daily, usually help learners progress more quickly.

• Personality: Outgoing, confident learners may be more willing to practice speaking, which can lead to faster language development.

• Cognitive abilities: Some people may have a natural aptitude for languages, making it easier for them to learn.

• First language: The more similar a learner’s first language is to the target language, the easier it might be to learn.

• Learning strategies: Using effective learning techniques (like repetition, practice, and feedback) can boost language acquisition.

• Cultural factors: The learner’s connection to the culture of the language can influence how much they engage and use the language.

How should we teach students that are bilingual and multilingual? What kind of support?

Validate and Build on Existing Language Skills

Recognize the value of all the languages a student speaks. Encourage them to use their first language (L1) as a foundation to support their second or third language (L2, L3).

2. Encourage Translanguaging

Allow students to use all their languages together to understand and express ideas.

3. Provide Scaffolding

Give students support through strategies like visual aids, simplified language, and step-by-step instructions. This helps them understand complex ideas in the new language.

4. Offer Language-Specific Support

Provide additional help for students with weaker skills in a specific language. For example, provide extra vocabulary practice, grammar exercises, or conversation time in their second language.

5. Create an Inclusive Classroom

Encourage a culture where students’ multilingualism is seen as an asset. Use diverse resources (books, media, etc.) in different languages and create opportunities for peer learning and group work.

6. Focus on Content, Not Just Language

For students learning a second language, make sure the focus is not only on language proficiency but also on the content they are learning. This helps them engage meaningfully with the material while still developing language skills.

7. Promote Cultural Awareness

Incorporate diverse cultural perspectives into lessons, and encourage students to share their own cultural experiences. This will help students feel proud of their backgrounds and more engaged in learning.

8. Build Confidence

Encourage risk-taking and communication in any language, creating a safe space for students to practice without fear of making mistakes.

By creating a supportive, inclusive, and flexible environment, you can help bilingual and multilingual students thrive in their language learning and academic development.

Do you have to assess the child in both languages? Why or why not?

Yes, it is important to assess a child in both languages when they are bilingual or multilingual. Assessing a child in both languages provides a complete picture of their language skills, helping to avoid misdiagnosis and ensuring appropriate support for their development.

Dilects

Dialects are variations of a language spoken by a particular group of people, often based on factors like region, social class, or ethnicity. They can differ in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, but are still considered the same language.

Code switching

Code-switching is the practice of alternating between two or more languages or dialects within a conversation or sentence, often depending on the context, topic, or audience.

Example:

A bilingual speaker might say, "I need to finish my homework, pero no tengo ganas" (Spanish for "but I don't feel like it"). Here, they switch between English and Spanish, often without even thinking about it, because both languages are part of their everyday communication.

(MOM i made up 4 different languages in code, so he switches back and forth with different languages all coded using all of them.)

obligatory contexts

Obligatory contexts are times when a certain word or grammar rule must be used to make a sentence correct.

Simple Example:

In the sentence "He eat lunch," we need to say "He eats lunch" — the -s is required.
So, this is an obligatory context for adding -s to the verb.

we analyze if the child has mastered those morphemes and

obligatory means you have to do, and contexts is given the situation, so given the situation, you have to add certain words or rules

What role does reading play on children?

it can help develop semantic, phonological, and pragmatic abilitys.

being able to read requires

graphemes to phonemes corresponds aka letters to sounds.

Its how well they establish print and phonological awareness in preschool so its critical

Digraphs

Two graphemes- one phoneme

SHeet=”sh”

CHick=" “ch”

PHotograph= “f”

Digraphs are two letters that work together to make one sound.

Examples:

• “sh” in “ship” (sounds like “shhh”)

• “ch” in “chair” (sounds like “chhh”)

• “th” in “that” (sounds like “th” in “this”)

• “ph” in “phone” (sounds like “f”)

Just remember: Two letters, one sound!

(Di-” means two, and a digraph is two letters making one sound.)

Silent graphemes

doesn’t represent any sound at all, its silent so like the letter b in “debt”

(they are silent)

Dipthongs

A sound formed by the combination of two vowels (a,e,i,o,u) in a single syllable.

You glide from "ah" to "ee"

• My

• Bike

• Time

• Cry

• Light

(it glides from one word to the next, just like how a thong slide up your ass.

Pre- reading stage 0

these are emerging literacy skills from birth to the beginning of school

They develop oral language, print awareness psychological awareness

when their just starting to get ready to read

STAGE 1: decoding faze

k-1 stage where kids are starting to decode words Decode words by associating letters with
corresponding sounds

and phonics (letters- to sounds) it requires direct instruction kids can understand 6,000 words but only read about 600

1st phase: if kid reads the duck is in the pond but they don’t know what pond is they might say a close word like the duck is in the lake

2nd phase: the duck is in the Pond, so kids might guess that the word say Puddle their still guessing

STAGE 2: Conformation, fluency, and ungluing from print stage grades (2-3)

their decoding skills are better so while reading youll see…

Fluency: readings efficient, well paced, free of errors

Unplugging from print: readings more automatic and confident

should include Accuracy, rate, expression, and puncuation

STAGE 3: reading to learn age 9-13

read to gain new information

STAGE 4: multiple view points (14-18)

can grasp hard concepts and multiple view points

Stage 5:Constructiona and Reconstruction

(age 18- on)

read selectively to suit their purpose.

Its used for ones own needs and purposes

Used to create knowledge like what your doing rn

Morphophonemic development

morphological (words) and phonological (how their pronounced) process this would be:

Learning how sounds (phonemes) change when morphemes (the smallest units of meaning) are combined. So, morphophonemic development is about understanding how word endings and other small meaningful parts change their pronunciation depending on the word.

Sound modification: like finGer and singer althouth they are the same fingers G sound is hard and singers g sound is sorta light

vowel shifting: Cats-s dogs- z

stress: green house- place for plants vs Green…House- would be a house that is green

(you’ve developed the ability to say words the right way, and use them diffrently)

Derivational prefixes

Morphemes that attach to the beginning of a word and changes the words meaning

example: happy vs Un-happy, that changes the words meaning

(they are PREfixes (the beginning of a word) that derive from original word)

Derivational suffixes

attached to the end of words and can change a words class, meaning, or both.

example: teach vs teach-er

dervational aka changes suffixes END of a word

at the end he suffered, the end…

Syntax development

(adding on words and forming them)

instead of just saying “he is running” a child may say “he is running super fast like sonic in that movie

(syntax, you can put more and better words together)

Noun phase post modification

(Noun post meaning after the noun modification there’s an add on word to make it better)

refers to words or groups of words that come after a noun to give more information about it.

Examples:

• "The book on the table"
  → “on the table” is the post-modifier telling us which book.

• "A girl with a red hat"
  → “with a red hat” gives more info about the girl.

a younger student may say “they did a waltz dance”

while an older may say “They did a dance called the waltz”

also if they use words such as had, has, or have, they usually

Much like Adverbial conjunctions: which are words that use the words and, and then

How can we tell if a child has gained literate language

elaborated noune phrases: the man by the blue fountain (more descriptive)

adverbs: i walked QUICKLY to the car or I jumped REALLY high (it adds onto a verb)

Conjunctions:

Coordinating conjunction vs Subordinating

coordinating: and, for, yet, but, so ex: "She was tired, but she kept working." (joining two sentences)

Subordinating: Its conjunctions that kinda change the topic like, because, if, although I stayed home because I was sick."

• "She smiled when she saw her dog." Joins an independent clause and a dependent clause (the dependent one can’t stand alone).

So, in short, coordinating keeps things equa and on track for talking abt the same thing, while subordinating introduces something extra or a reason.

Coordinating	Subordinating
Joins equals	Joins dependent to independent
FANBOYS	because, although, when, if, etc.
No clause depends on the other	One clause depends on the other

Mental and linguistic verbs

Mental verbs: think, know, believe, imagine (their all mental)

Linguistic verbs: say, tell, speak, shout (are all linguistics aka speaking)

Syntax development of Functional flexability

ability to use language for a variety of communicative purposes

school age children must be able to compare and contrast, purswade, explain, classify

Expository discourse

(ill EXplane and DIScuss how to do this)

Language used to convay information about something

how to do…

Expository discourse is talking or writing that explains or gives information about something.

Example:

• A student explaining how a plant grows

• A teacher describing the water cycle

It's used to teach, inform, or describe, not to tell stories or have casual conversations.

Persuasive discourse

(im going to DIScuss this in order to persuade you)

Used to convince a listener to do something.

Kids develop theory of mind so they can be very good at this skill. They know hoe to tug on your heart strings and persuade you to do something

Narrative development

(narrative, aka story development)

Recounts: Recounting and telling a personal story

Accounts: Spontaneous personal story’s

Event cast: Describe a situation as it happens

Fictionalized stories: Invented story’s and narratives

Story grammar

telling story’s with personal characters, moving through time correctly, describing others mental states, motivations for actions,

Expressive elaboration

Expressive elaboration is telling a story in a creative and detailed way.

Appendages

( did you know a PEN…. blah blah blah story)

Appendages are signs or clues that show the narrator is starting or ending a story.

I HAD TO GET AN APPENDAGE omg i need to start to tell you

Orientations

Orientations are details that explain the setting and the characters in a story.

(like on orientation day of college they explained the setting aka the campus, the characters aka the people ect)

Evaluations

Evaluations are ways the narrator shows their or the character's opinions and views.

(they evaluate their story and the characters based off of their opinions)

Elaborated nouns

• Basic Noun Phrase: The dog

• Elaborated Noun Phrase: The big, fluffy dog with brown spots

(person, places, or things that are elaborated on and described)

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They often tell how, when, or where something happens.

Examples:

• Quickly (how)

• Yesterday (when)

• Outside (where)

(it adds onto a verb to describe it)

Assessment types: Formative evaluations

Help with learning language or checking language growth. Formative evaluations are checks during learning to see how well someone is doing and to help them improve.

Summative evaluations

summative evaluations are tests or assessments done at the end of therapy or learning to see how much progress was made.

(A summary evaluation)

lexical meaning

refers to the basic, dictionary definition of a word—the meaning it has on its own,

Lexical meaning is the basic, dictionary meaning of a word. It’s what the word actually means, like “dog” meaning a type of animal.The lexical meaning of “apple” is a round fruit that grows on trees.

• The lexical meaning of “run” is to move quickly on foot.

It’s just the straightforward definition of a word.

lexi is just a straight-up girl and very plain I describe her as a girl

how do we test a child’s ability to use abstract language

they use words like over, next, to ,behind, and simon says, that allows us to hear words and commands and interpret them.

idioms

An idiom is a common phrase or saying that has a meaning different from the literal words. You can’t understand it just by looking at the individual words.

Examples:

• “Break the ice” = To make people feel more comfortable.

• “Piece of cake” = Something that is very easy.

Remember this is culturally abse3d, so if you're asking a kid that just came to America, this prob isn’t the best way to test for their language knowledge.

(idiom like an individual, that stands on its own and can’t be understood unless you know who they are and their meaning)

meta linguistic competence

Metalinguistic competence is the ability to think about and understand language itself. It means being aware of how words, sentences, and meanings work, and using that knowledge to make decisions about language.

For example, understanding that the word “bat” can mean a flying animal or a sports equipment

(Your competent to understanding that words have a meta universal meaning and can mean different things like bat and base ball bat)

Hyperbole

A hyperbole is an exaggerated way of saying something, not meant to be taken literally.

Example:

• "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse."
  This doesn't mean eating a whole horse, it just means you're really hungry!

(when your super hyper, you exaggerate by saying IM SO HYPER I COULD BOUNCE OFF THE WALLS)

opaque idiom

An opaque idiom is an idiom where the meaning can’t be guessed just by looking at the words. The meaning is not clear or obvious.

Example:

• “Bite the bullet” means to do something difficult, but you can't tell that from the words themselves.

4o mini

transparent idiom

A transparent idiom is an idiom where the meaning can be partly guessed from the words themselves. The words give a clue about the meaning.

Example:

• “Kick the bucket” (meaning "to die") has some clue because "kick" and "bucket" can suggest something ending or stopping.

(its an idiom so you cant fully understand it by just looking at the word, but it is slightly transparent and you can infer some things)

dramatic irony

Dramatic irony is when the audience or reader knows something that the characters in a story do not. This creates a sense of tension or humor.

Example: In a movie, the audience knows the villain is hiding behind the door, but the character doesn't, making it more exciting when they open it.

(there’s a DRAMATIC lunatic breaking out behind the IRON bars, that the characters in the story dont know about, but we do)

proverbs

Proverbs are short, well-known sayings that offer advice or life lessons based on common wisdom or experience.

Example:

• "A stitch in time saves nine." (Meaning: Fix problems early before they get bigger.)

• "Don't count your chickens before they hatch." (Meaning: Don’t assume something will happen before it actually does.)

(like in the bible proverbs are short sentences of life advice)

Contextual abstraction

Contextual abstraction is using clues from a sentence or situation to figure out what a word or phrase means.

Example: If you read, “She was famished and ate quickly,” you can guess “famished” means very hungry from the context.

(You can ABSTRACT a words CONTEXT from the rest of the sentance)

Homophones

Homophones are words that sound the same but have different meanings and spellings.

Examples:

• “To,” “two,” and “too”

• “Pair” and “pear”

(two Homosexual are on the phone talking, they sound the same, and are saying i’m excited to see you too at two!) their talking on the phone sounding the same saying the same words that have different meanings

Homographs (put together)

Homographs are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings and sometimes different pronunciations.

Examples:

• “Bow” (a ribbon) vs. “Bow” (to bend forward)

• “Tear” (to rip) vs. “Tear” (a drop of liquid from the eye)

Same spelling, but different meanings!

(there’s a homo winding his watch that has a graph on it, as the wind is blowing his hair, its very gay but wind and wind are spelled the same and have different meanings)

hetrographs (hear)

Heterographs are words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings.

Examples:

• “To,” “two,” and “too.”

• “Their,” “there,” and “they’re.”

Same sound, different spelling and meaning. Type of homophone

(hetero hear they sound the same and graphs spellings, their spelled differently)

heteronyms vs heterophones

Heteronyms:

• Words that are spelled the same but have different meanings and are usually pronounced differently.

• how you SPELL the name RON

man is talking to a substitute teacher taking attendance… My names ron, every person whos name is ron is spelled the same, but some may pronounce it differently. Man raises his hand…and says yea like my name, its pronounced like rowne but spelled like ron!

Heterophones:

• Words that sound the same but are spelled differently and have different meanings.

  Example:

  • "flour" (used in baking) and "flower" (the plant)

  • Sounds you hear like on the PHONE sound the same

  (a hetro sexual bf is on the phone with his friend asking “what should I buy my gf for Valentine’s day” The friend says get her some flower. The bf said oh.. ok ill get her some flour… he comes back to his gf with a bag of flour, and the gf says wth am I gonna do with this?! so he calls his friend up and says you told me over the phone to buy her flour so I did, and she hated it… His friend says when I said flower I meant a flower like the plant, not flour for cooking, man they sound the same over the phone but are spelled differently and have different meanings you dumb ass.)

Lexical ambiguity

Lexical ambiguity is when a word has multiple meanings, and it’s unclear which meaning is intended.

Ambiguity: means something is unclear or has more than one possible meaning

Example:

• “Bat” could mean a flying animal or a baseball stick.

• “Bank” could mean a financial institution or the side of a river.

The meaning depends on the context.

(ambiguity means multiple meanings, aka lexical ambiguity is when a word has ambiguity aka multiple meanings)

Phonological ambiguity

Phonological ambiguity is when words or phrases sound the same but have different meanings. It’s caused by how words are pronounced.

Example:

• “I scream” vs. “Ice cream” (They sound the same but mean different things.)

• “Knight” vs. “Night” (Same sound, different meanings and spellings.)

It often happens with homophones.

(phonological what we hear ambiguity has multiple different meanings)

surface structure ambiguity

Surface structure ambiguity is when a sentence can be understood in more than one way because of how it’s worded or structured.

Example:

• “The chicken is ready to eat.”

  • It could mean the chicken is prepared and ready for someone to eat.

  • Or, it could mean the chicken is hungry and ready to eat something.

The words are the same, but the meaning changes depending on how you interpret the structure.

(the way a sentence is structured can have multiple meanings)

deep structure ambiguity

Deep structure ambiguity happens when a sentence has multiple meanings because of its underlying structure or how it’s interpreted at a deeper level. It’s not just about how the sentence is worded, but how it’s understood.

Example:

• “I saw the man with the telescope.”

  • It could mean I used a telescope to see the man.

  • Or it could mean the man had a telescope, and I saw him.

The ambiguity comes from how the relationship between words is understood at a deeper level.

Logical inferences

Logical inferences are conclusions or ideas that we figure out based on the information we already have. They help us understand something that is not directly stated.

Example:

• If you see someone holding an umbrella and the ground is wet, you can infer that it might have rained.

• If someone is smiling and holding a gift, you can infer they are happy or celebrating.

It’s about using clues to make an educated guess.

Pragmatic infrences

Pragmatic inferences are conclusions we make based on social or cultural context rather than just the literal meaning of words. They help us understand what people mean in everyday situations, even when it's not directly said.

(if someone always brags, you can infer that their a bragger and you shouldn’t talk to them)

Example:

• If someone says, "Can you pass the salt?" at a dinner table, you pragmatically infer they want you to pass the salt, not just asking if you can do it.

• If someone looks at the clock and says, "It's getting late," you might infer they are suggesting it's time to leave, even if they don’t say it directly.

It’s about understanding what’s implied based on the situation.

basically inferences we make based on hearing people talk

Fact

children’s utterances are on average as long as adults by age 6

Fact

children start to gain more language input from text around 8-10 years old

Quick as a ninja is what type of figurative language

simile

because a simile compares two different things using the words "like" or "as" to show a similarity between them.

Examples:

• "She’s as fast as a cheetah."
  → Compares her speed to a cheetah’s using “as.”

• "His smile is like sunshine."
  → Compares his smile to sunshine using “like.”

(shes as smiley as sunshine)

Fact

being able to read does not take the childs succsessful understanding of morphemes and graphemes

allophones

They’re like different versions of a sound depending on where it is in a word.

Easy Examples:

1. /t/ sound:

   • “Top” (a clear, strong /t/ sound).

   • “Water” (often sounds like a soft “d” in American English).

   • “Button” (sounds like a quick stop instead of a clear /t/).

dad has a Top (the spinner toy) but instead of a string it has a red buTton and when he pressed it it sprayed waTer and he said ALLOOO

phones sound that sound different depending on where there at in the sentence

How to count graphemes

1. Break the word into sounds (phonemes).

2. Match each sound to its grapheme.

3. Count each grapheme, not each letter.

Examples:

• “Cat” = /c/ /a/ /t/ = 3 graphemes (c, a, t).

• “Ship” = /sh/ /i/ /p/ = 3 graphemes (sh, i, p).

• “Night” = /n/ /ī/ /t/ = 3 graphemes (n, igh, t).

• “Phone” = /f/ /ō/ /n/ = 3 graphemes (ph, o, ne).

Tip: Graphemes are about sounds, not just letters.

4o

how to count phonemes

How to Count Phonemes:

1. Say the word slowly and break it into separate sounds.

2. Count each sound you hear.

Examples:

• “Cat” = /k/ /a/ /t/ = 3 phonemes.

• “Ship” = /sh/ /i/ /p/ = 3 phonemes.

• “Night” = /n/ /ī/ /t/ = 3 phonemes.

• “Dog” = /d/ /o/ /g/ = 3 phonemes.

• “Stick” = /s/ /t/ /i/ /k/ = 4 phonemes.

Similes

a figure of speech that compares two things using the words "like" or "as" to show how they are similar.

Simply defined:

A simile is when you say something is like or as something else to make a comparison.

Examples:

• "She was as fast as a cheetah."

• "His smile was like sunshine."

(she was as smiley as sunshine)

metephors

Metaphor = Directly says one thing is another (no "like" or "as"). A metaphor directly says one thing is another, without using "like" or "as."

Example:

• "Her smile is the sun." (Says her smile is the sun)

• "Time is a thief."
  → Time doesn't literally steal, but it feels like it takes things away.

• "Her voice was music to his ears."
  → Her voice is being compared to music — pleasant and soothing.

• "The world is a stage."
  → Life is being compared to a play, where everyone has roles.

💡 Key difference from a simile:

• Simile: "Life is like a journey."

• Metaphor: "Life is a journey."

Intonation

– The rise and fall of pitch in speech (e.g., how a sentence sounds like a question vs. a statement).

inTONe nation note as in your pitch hig or low , it can control \whether something is presented as a question or not.

Stress

– Emphasis on certain syllables or words (e.g., "REcord" vs. "reCORD" changing meaning).

by 9 months

stress like stretch…. you emphasize certain syllables and stretch them

Rhythm

– The pattern of timing and pauses in speech.

• Tempo

• – The speed at which speech is produced.

• Loudness

• – Variations in volume during speech.

prosodic characteristics

refer to the features of speech that go beyond individual sounds or words.

all of the terms above are examples of this

Stress, Loudness, Tempo, Rhythm, Stress, Intonation

im a PRO at talking and here are all the characteristics i use that make me the best

Categorical perception

Categorical perception means that instead of hearing sounds as a smooth change, our brain sorts them into clear categories.

For example, when we hear the sounds "ba" and "pa," they are actually very similar. Categorial perception means we see or hear things as distinct categories instead of as a gradual change. For example, we hear "b" and "p" as separate sounds, even though they exist on a spectrum.

(we place certain sounds in seperate categorys, its)

(certain categotys that we place our perceptions of sounds.)

• Babies are born able to hear all speech sounds.

• As they grow, they learn to focus only on the sounds used in their language.

• This helps them understand speech quickly but also makes it harder to learn new sounds in another language later.

It’s like sorting colors into "red" and "orange" instead of noticing every tiny shade in between. Our brain makes speech easier to process by grouping similar sounds into categories!

Perceptual narrowing

means that babies start out able to notice all kinds of sounds, but as they grow, they get better at hearing only the sounds they actually need for their language.

Imagine you’re learning a new language. At first, all the words sound the same. But if you hear them every day, your brain gets better at telling them apart. Babies do the same thing—but they stop noticing sounds they don’t need for their language.

allophone

An allophone is just a different way of saying the same sound, but it doesn’t change the word’s meaning.

(Think of allophones as clones of the same sound—they look a little different but still belong to the same "sound family.")

Example:

• Say "top" and "stop" out loud.

• The "t" in "top" has a little puff of air.

• The "t" in "stop" doesn’t.

• They sound slightly different, but they’re still the same "t" sound.

Those are allophones—different versions of the same sound!

Intentional communication

is when a baby or child does something on purpose to send a message.

Examples:

• A baby raises their arms because they want to be picked up.

• A toddler points at a toy because they want it.

• A child looks at you and makes a sound because they want more juice.

It usually starts around 8-10 months when babies realize they can use gestures, sounds, or eye contact to get what they want.

What are the 3 phases of joint attention?

joint attention is a crucial early communication skill where a child and caregiver share focus on an object or event.

Emergence of Joint Attention

Transition to Coordinated Joint Attention

Established Joint Attention

Emergence of Joint Attention

Emergence of Joint Attention (Birth – 6 Months)

• Infants show interest in people rather than objects.

• They engage in dyadic interactions (face-to-face with a caregiver).

• Eye contact, social smiles, and cooing are key behaviors

(baby and parents attention and mind MERGES together face to face) their joined attentions merge together

Transition to Coordinated Joint Attention

Transition to Coordinated Joint Attention (6 – 12 Months)

• Infants begin shifting attention between objects and people.

• They start using gaze-following, pointing, and gestures.

• They look at objects of interest and then back at caregivers to check their reaction.

(their attention is more coordinated, they can look at parent and object)

Established Joint Attention

Established Joint Attention (12+ Months)

• Infants actively seek to share experiences with others.

• They use pointing, vocalizations, and words to direct attention.

• This phase is critical for word learning and social interaction.

(im trying to ESTABLISH my point!!!!! through joint attention)

What are 7 types of caregiver responsiveness (meaning what are the suggestions for parents? What should a parent do when interacting with their child?)

• Waiting and Listening

  • Pause and give the child time to initiate communication.

  • Listen attentively without interrupting.

• Following the Child’s Lead

  • Pay attention to what the child is interested in.

  • Respond to their focus rather than redirecting them.

• Joining In and Playing

  • Engage in activities the child enjoys.

  • Play at their level and encourage interaction.

• Being Face-to-Face

  • Get down to the child’s eye level during interactions.

  • Helps with eye contact, engagement, and social connection.

• Encouraging Turn-Taking

  • Treat interactions like a conversation, even before the child speaks.

  • Respond to babbles, gestures, and early words as if they are meaningful.

• Expanding and Extending

  • Expand by repeating what the child says with more details.

  • Extend by adding new related information.

  • Example: If a child says "dog," a parent can respond, "Yes, a big brown dog is running!"

• Using a Variety of Labels and Language

  • Provide names for objects, actions, and emotions.

  • Use simple, clear, and repetitive language to support learning.