memory

stimuli

external energy in the environment that elicits or influences a physiological or psychological activity or response

sensory organs

sense organs that allow us to receive physical energy from the environment

sensation

process where receptors in sensory organs receive info about the environment and transmit it to the brain

perception

the process where the brain organises and interprets sensory info

how do you receive a sensation

appropriate stimulus energy must reach sense organ and be at sufficient level to activate sense receptors

what does absolute threshold depend on

environmental factors like noise or light and psychological factors like stress or expectations

absolute threshold

minimum level of energy required for a stimulus outside our body to be detected by our internal senses

what do sense organs convert their form of stimulus energy into

coded neural impulses of electrochemical energy

how are neural impulse of electrochemical energy transmitted

through the nervous system to the brain for interpretation

why does stimulus energy need to be converted into electrochemical energy

electrochemical energy is the only energy from the nervous system the brain can process and our response to stimuli is an automatic physical response

when does perception take place

when certain stimuli are selected, organised and given meaning by the brain

how are sensations and perceptions interlinked

without sensation you can't perceive and without perception our sensations have no meaning

steps of sensation and perception

reception, transduction, transmission, selection, organisation, interpretation

reception

stimulus energy collected.

transduction

stimulus energy converted by receptor cells into electrochemical nerve impulses.

transmission

receptor cells send nerve impulse to primary sensory cortex where specialised receptor cells respond as the process of perception begins.

selection

pick out important stimuli and pay attention to it.

organisation

info reaches brain and is organised so we can make sense of it.

interpretation

process of giving meaning to information

attention

a voluntary or involuntary orientation of awareness towards a particular stimulus, ignoring other stimuli

stimuli that can attract our attention

new stimuli, changes in stimulation, something personally meaningful, something repetitious

selective attention

ability to focus on select stimuli and to filter out distractions. intentional or automatic

divided attention

ability to focus attention on two or more activities at the same time. tasks requiring a high level of attention is difficult to successfully complete using divided attention. similar tasks are harder to complete at the same time

cocktail party effect

cherry 1953. evidence for selective attention. ability to tune into one voice from many conversations in a noisy room. little info extracted from non attended to message. the physical differences of speaker helps maintain attention to a chosen auditory message. presented two messages in the same voice to both ears at once so listeners found it hard to separate messages as physical differences were eliminated. unattended auditory information receives no processing

memory

the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve information. mental representation of things without the original stimulus being present

process of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding

conversion of sensory info into a form that can be processed by the brain

storage

retention of info in a form that is accessible later (via network of neurons)

retrieval

central to memory, recovery of info stored in the brain. if memory cant be retrieved then it cant exist

the multi store model - atkinson and shiffrin 1968

explanation of how memory processes work. consists of three processes. sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory. new info is received by sensory register then flows to short term memory and then to the long term memory. info can go to sensory to long term or long term to short term. short term and long term can be forgotten due to biological factors or antecedent processes.

sensory memory

all info picked up by sensory receptors whether we pay attention or not is held in sensory memory (less than 5 secs) sensory data held in raw form rather than encoded form. allows us to perceive the world around us as continuous rather than disconnected visual images. info remains long enough to attend to it and select the info to be transferred to short term memory for processing. if info is not attended to then no further processing occurs, no short term memory

iconic memory

visual sensory register - incoming info 0.3s

echoic memory

auditory sensory register - incoming info 3-4s

short term memory

stored for 18-30sec unless renewed. info no longer an exact replica of sensory stimulus but an encoding or representation of one. holds all info youre consciously aware of at any moment in time. units of info at any time. 7+/-2

how is info in stm lost

decay (not used/renewed)

displacement (pushed out and replaced by new info)

long term memory

info decay over time. info moves from stm to ltm thru physical changes in neurons and neural networks to make the associations hence the permanent storage. info can be interfered with during storage and retrieval

long term memory =

declarative memory(explicit) - procedural memory (implicit)

l l

semantic memory, episodic memory.

declarative memory

facts and events. knowing 'that'. semantic memory is facts (knowledge) and episodic memory is events personal)

procedural memory

actions and skills. knowing 'how'. occurs after practice

working memory model baddeley and hitch 1974, baddeley 2000

describes the structure and function of working memory in terms of three components. phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, central executive. three components are separate and can function relatively independently but can also interact

episodic buffer

added in 2000. binds info from other two slave systems with info from ltm to prepare memories for storage in episodic memory. limited and temporary storage system for info held in any form

central executive

coordinate actions of other components of working memory, briefly store info from any of the senses, integrates info from phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and ltm to guide mental processes and behaviour. when information is no longer needed it directs its flow to the ltm.

visuo spatial sketchpad

stores and manipulates info of a visual and spatial nature. holds and gathers info gathered during either initial processing or info from ltm to produce the memory of an image

phonological loop

storing and manipulation info of auditory info. articulatory control system: repeat piece of info. phonological store: uses sound based code to store the piece of auditory information

interaction of working memory model (4 parts)

work out quickest route to a party.

1. Phonological loop sub vocally rehearses directions to keep info active

2. Visuo spatial sketchpad visualises a route

3. Central executive direct episodic buffer to combine info from both

4. Landmarks retrieved from ltm added

5. Central executive creates mental representation in planning journey

evaluation of working memory model

hasnt been fully explained in relation to other components of working memory or ltm but the model accounts for evidence that stm handles a greater variety of functions and depends on more complicated processes which further research supports

role of the hippocampus

within temporal lobe. organisation and storage of new explicit memories, transition to permanent memories, binding elements of experience and consolidating these as memories, links to amygdala to associate emotions with memories. cells of hippocampus can reproduce to allow new memories to form. declarative memories

henry molaison 1953 case study

strengthens role of hippocampus in creation of memories. hm removed portions of temporal lobe including hippocampus to cure severe epileptic seizures. after surgery seizures were controlled, cognitive functions intact but lost the ability to form new memories and remember old. retrograde and anterograde amneisa

role of cerebellum, (implicit memory)

controls movement, balance and coordination needed to master tasks requiring constant monitoring. e.g threading a needle. essential for procedural memories, recieves and coordinates signals from spinal cord, brain and sensory system to carry out motor movements

role of amygdala

connection to hippocampus by linking emotions to memories. key role in processing emotions and emotional reactions, the more emotive a memory the more likely it is to be remembered. damage to this results in not being able to experience emotions associated with episodic memories. implicit memory and procedural.

difference between sensation and perception

sensation source is the stimuli obtained from sensory organs and perception source is info sent to the brain through sensation. sensation results in perception whilst perception results in interpreting and giving meaning to info received. sensation is a general biological procedure whilst perception are more psychological significance since the persons past experiences affect that directly.

theories of forgetting

retrieval failure theory, interference theory, motivated forgetting theory, decay theory

retrieval failure theory

forgetting is an inability to retrieve material due to an absence of the right cues or a failure to use them. Context dependent cues are environment memoyr was encoded, state dependent cues are emotional state or sense associated with memory. Tot shows memories are stored at a variety of locations in the brain

motivated forgetting theory

suppression - conscious refusal to access memories that are available. Repression - distressing memories are unconsciously pushed to an inaccessible part of mind and person is unaware they exist. Memories are not forgotten just difficult to retrieve. Repressed can be brought back into awareness through a trigger

decay theory

memory traces fade through lack of use and eventually become unavailable. Forgetting is a psychological process based on the idea that when a memory is laid down there is a chemical trace of experience in the brain

interference theory

explanation of why a memory trace that is available has become temporarily inaccessible - set of info competes with another set of info. Proactive interference is when previously learn material inhibits our ability to retrieve new info. Retroactive interference is newly learnt material inhibits our ability to retrieve previously learnt material.

ebbinghaus forgetting curve 1855

Measure amount of info retained and the rate at which info is forgotten.

Learnt lists of 13 3 letter syllables until he could recite them twice

More than half memory loss occurs within first hour after learning, all material that will be forgotten is lost in 8 hours, info not forgotten is retained in memory

remembering

recall, recognition, relearning

recall

person retrieve stored info using minimal amount of cues to assist retrieval, least sensitive. free recall: retrieve as much info in any order. serial recall: recall info in order presented. cued recall: using various cues to assist retrieval process

recognition

identification of correct info amongst list of incorrect info

relearning

learning something that has previously been committed to memory. Does not require conscious recollection of original material. When info is encoded and stored previously it is learnt at a faster rate. Most sensitive (least effort)

levels of processing memory craik and lockhart 1972

Depth of processing involved in memory. Deeper info is processed the longer a memory trace will last - easier to recall info. Depth refers to the meaning derived from the stimuli

Process info in shallow (structural and phonemic) deep (semantic and elaboration)

Shallow processing encodes physical info based on appearance. Phonemic is encoding auditory info. Shallow process only involves maintenance rehearsal and leads to short retention of info.

Deep processing. Semantic is encoding meanin of the word by relating to similar words. Elaboration is more meaningful analysis which leads to better recall. Elaborative rehearsal of info allows for deep processing as info encoded semantically

. craik and tulving 1975

depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory

c/t 1975 aim

investigate how deep and shallow processing affects memory recall

c/t 1975 method

60 male and female students from uni of Toronto convenience sampled. Presented with 60 words and answered one of three questions. Some questions required [articipants to process the word in a deep way and others in shallow. Participants then given a long list of 180 words with orinignal 60 words mixed in and asked to pick out orinigal words

c/t 1975 key findings

Participants recalled more words semantically processed compare to phonemically and visually processed words. Senaticallu process words involved elaboration rehearsal which results in more accurate recal. Phonemic and visually processed words involve shallow processing and less accurate recall

c/t 1975 contributions

built on multi store model. Widened focus from seeing ltm as simple storage unit to complex processing system. confirmed superirotity of deep semantic processing for remembering info

c/t 1975 limitations

doesn't explain how deeper processing results in better memories. Deeper processing takes more effort than shallow and could be this rather than depth of processing that makes it more likely people remember something

maintenance rehearsal

repeating info so its retained in stm. If not interrupted info can be retained indefnitly in stm. Doesn't lead to long term retention has it does not add meaning to info or link it to other material in ltm. When rehearsal stops info lost 18-30 seconds after. If repeated enough can transfer to ltm. Verbal or non verbal. Saying things, imagining

elaborative rehearsal

meaning of info. Process of linking new info in a meaginful way or with info in ltm. Allows us to process at a deeper level. Ability to recall enhanced as it is linked to other info.

explain using atkinson and shiffrin how mandy stored memory from being young

start with sensory memory, all senses around her enter sensory memory and be stored for up to 5 secs. attention would have been payed while looking at something memorable and store that in short term memory, info rehearsed as she recount story at the time, then memory stored into ltm in episodic where it can be recalled back to stm when retelling story

identify and explain type of long term memory event from childhood is stored in

declarative. the what of memory. recalling an event is episodic memory the memory of past events like memorable event

causes of memory loss

chronic traumatic encephalopathy, Alzheimer's, wernicke korsakoff syndrome

Trauma/ chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE).

Brain disorder likely caused by repeated head injuries. Causes death of nerve cells in brain. Gets worse over time. Can only be diagnosed after death during brain autopsy. Brains with cte have a buildup of protein called tau around blood vessels causing areas of the brain to waste away. This is because nerve cells that conduct electrical impulses and injured and affects communication between cells.

Degeneration/ alzhiemers disease

Neurodegenerative disease that causes progressive loss of brain tissue. Characterised by changes in brain that lead to deposits of certain proteins. Causes brain to shrink and brain cells to eventually die. Gradual decline in memory, thinking, behaviour and social skills. Most common cause of dementia.

Drug induced - Wernicke Korsakoff syndrome WKS

Brain disorder caused by lake of vitamine b1 (thiamine.) - helps brain turn sugar into energy. Caused by alcoholism. Long term, ongoing. Affects areas of the brain that form new memories and learn new information.