chapter 8 the European expansion

The Song of Roland

An epic poem depicting the heroism of Charlemagne’s knights against Muslims in Spain, symbolizing Christian valor.

Crusades

Military campaigns (1095-1099) initiated to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslims, reflecting the culture of holy war and chivalry.

Medieval Warm Period

A climatic phase from 950 to 1250 that saw warmer temperatures leading to agricultural surpluses and population growth.

Iceland (Althing)

Iceland established the first parliamentary democracy in 930, reflecting early democratic ideals in Europe.

Feudalism

A complex system of personal loyalty and land grants that characterized social and political structures in medieval Europe.

Investiture Controversy

A conflict (1075-1122) between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV over the appointment of bishops, symbolizing the struggle between church and state.

Towns and Communes

Urban centers in medieval Europe that gained independence from feudal lords, fostering trade and economic revitalization.

Knights

Military elite who adhered to the code of chivalry, becoming important figures in feudal society.

Viking Settlements

Towns established by Vikings, including Iceland and Greenland, which transitioned from raiders to settlers.

Papal Reform Movement

A series of reforms aimed at increasing the Church's independence from secular powers, initiated by movements like Cluny.