Cell Biology - Carbs

Amylase

A digestive enzyme that speeds up the chemical breakdown (hydrolysis) of starches into simple sugars (monosaccharides)

Salivary amylase

(ptyalin {ty-len}) enzyme produced in saliva to help omnivores start the digestion of carbohydrates

Amylose

a linear polysaccharide carbohydrate made of hundreds of thousands of glucose units joined together in a straight chain (starch)

Disaccharides

2 monosaccharides (simple sugars)

Enantiomers

mirror image of isomers (same chemical formula / different structures)

Enterocytes

epithelial cells that line the inner surface of the small and large intestines and absorb nutrients from digested food

Glucosamine

sugar derivative - replacement of single OH group by another

i.e. glucosamine = amino group = amino sugar → common monosaccharide in many polysaccharides (cartilage, chitlin)

Glycogen

stored form of glucose when the body needs a boost in animals

mastication helps break down material (like glucose)

stored in the liver thru the hepatic portal system

Glycoside

carbohydrates attached to the non-carbohydrate molecules via glycosidic bonds

Glycosidic bonds

covalent (shared) bond that joins a carbohydrate molecule to another group

Hepatocyte

cells of the liver

Herbivorous

animal that gets all of its energy from plant/leaves/fruit/vegetation

Hexoses

monosaccharide with 6 carbon atoms

Hydrolase

enzyme that speeds down the breakdown of larger molecules by using water

Intestinal microvilli

tiny, finger like projections on the surface of the cells in the small intestine that increase surface area to absorb nutrients

Isomaltase

enzyme in the SI that breaks down complex sugar bonds that other enzymes can’t

Isomers

same chemical formula / different structures

Lactase

enzyme in the SI that breaks down lactose (milk sugar) into simple sugars

Lumen

the hollow space of the GI tract where food travels (tube) - luminal phase of digestion happens here

Maltase

enzyme that breaks down the double sugar maltose into 2disaccharides

Monosaccharides

simple sugars

Mucosa

mucous membrane - moist inner tissue lining body cavities and organs

Oligosaccharides

type of carbohydrate made up of a small number of monosaccharides (3-10) linked by covalent bonds

Omnivores

gain energy from both plants/fruit as well as other animals

Polysaccharides

many monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds

Ptyalin

amylase enzyme found in saliva

Ruminants

herbivores, hoofed mammal that digests plant based food by fermenting it in a special multi chambered stomach and regurgitation semi digested mass called cud to chew it again

Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)

breaks down and absorbs most nutrients

Sucrase

enzyme that breaks down sucrose into monosaccharides

Trisaccharide

type of carbohydrate made up of 3 monosaccharides connected by two glycosidic bonds

ADP

Adenosine diphosphate

Aerobic

needs oxygen

Anabolic

constructs and synthesizes molecules while consuming energy.

Anaerobic

no oxygen needed / oxygen is harmful

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate - primary energy currency of all living cells

ATP synthase

enzyme that creates ATP by joining ADP with an inorganic phosphate

Catabolic

metabolic process that breaks down complex molecules into smaller units releasing energy into the form of ATP

FADH/FADH₂

a crucial redox coenzyme that acts as an electron carrier in cellular metabolism

Fermentation

a natural metabolic process where tiny living organisms like yeast and bacteria break down sugars without using oxygen to create energy

Glycolysis

the metabolic pathway that converts a six-carbon glucose molecule into two three-carbon molecules of pyruvate,

Hydrolysis

a chemical reaction where water is consumed to break one or more chemical bonds in a compound

Intercellular

located, occurring, or taking place between or among cells

Intracellular

located, occurring, or existing inside a cell

Metabolism

he continuous set of chemical reactions in your body that convert food and drink into the energy needed to keep you alive

Metabolism map

a graphical representation that shows how different chemical reactions and metabolic pathways connect inside a cell or organism

Mitochondria

membrane-bound organelles known as the "powerhouses of the cell" because they generate most of the chemical energy needed to power biochemical reactions.

NAD/NADH

two interchanging forms of a vital coenzyme called nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

Pyruvate

a crucial three-carbon molecule formed as the end-product of glycolysis

Branching enzyme

a specialized protein catalyst that helps build complex sugar storage molecules by creating side branches along linear chains of glucose

Cytochrome C

a small, water-soluble heme protein loosely associated with the inner mitochondrial membrane

CoQ

Coenzyme Q (also known as ubiquinone), a fat-soluble, redox-active molecule essential for cellular energy production.

Cori cycle

a metabolic pathway where lactate produced by anaerobic glycolysis in the muscles travels to the liver, gets converted back into glucose, and returns to the muscles to supply more energy

Dehydrogenases

a class of oxidoreductase enzymes

Fatty acids

carboxylic acids with long hydrocarbon chains

Glucogenic

one that can be turned into glucose (blood sugar) through a metabolic process called gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis

the metabolic process of building new glucose molecules from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates

Glycerol

a simple sugar alcohol and polyol with the chemical formula C₃H₈O₃ that serves as the core structural backbone for lipids and triglycerides in living organisms

Glycogen

a colorless, odorless, sweet-tasting, and thick liquid with the chemical formula C₃H₈O₃ that acts as the core structural backbone for fats and oils.

Glycogen synthase

the key regulatory enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of glycogen chains during glycogenesis by adding glucose units via α(1→4) glycosidic bonds

Glycogenesis

the metabolic process of converting excess glucose into glycogen for storage in the body

Glycogenin

a self-glycosylating priming enzyme that initiates the synthesis of glycogen from glucose

Glycogenolysis

the biochemical process of breaking down stored glycogen into glucose molecules to provide rapid energy and maintain normal blood sugar levels

Lactate

n organic molecule and the conjugate base of lactic acid

Lysosomes

a membrane-bound organelle inside eukaryotic cells that acts as the cell's main digestive and recycling center

Metabolic water

water produced inside a living organism during the breakdown and oxidation of energy-containing foods like fats, proteins, and carbohydrates

Oxidation

a chemical process where an atom, ion, or molecule loses electrons

Phagocytosis

the cellular process where a cell engulfs and digests large solid particles or foreign pathogens

Proton pump

an integral membrane protein that builds an electrochemical proton (hydrogen ion) gradient across a biological membrane

Pyruvate

a crucial three-carbon molecule that serves as the end product of glycolysis and a central junction point for cellular metabolism

RBC (red blood cell)

the most common type of blood cell that delivers oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body

Redox homeostasis

the dynamic balance between oxidant production and antioxidant defense systems that keeps cells healthy and functioning normally

Reduction

the process where a molecule, atom, or ion gains electrons, often by accepting hydrogen atoms

Respiratory burst

rapid release of reactive oxygen species (like superoxide and hydrogen peroxide) by immune cells to destroy engulfed pathogens

Transmembrane

spans completely across a biological membrane from one side to the other

Triglyceride

the most common type of fat (lipid) found in your blood and body, made from a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid chains

UTP/UDP

Uridine triphosphate (UTP) contains three phosphate groups and acts as a high-energy cellular donor, while uridine diphosphate (UDP) contains two phosphate groups and usually serves as a reaction product, leaving group, or signaling molecule

WBC (white blood cell)

vital cells in your immune system that protect your body from infections, illnesses, and diseases

α-D-glucose

a specific cyclic form (anomer) of the simple sugar D-glucose