Honors World Cultures: Middle East

Arab

A member of a Semitic people, originally from the Arabian peninsula and neighboring territories, inhabiting much of the Middle East and North Africa. They generally speak Arabic.

Muslim

Follower of the religion of Islam

Persian

A native or inhabitant of ancient or modern Persia (or Iran), or a person of Persian descent. They generally speak Farsi.

Arab-Israeli, Palestinian-Israeli Conflict

1948- 5 Arab nations invaded territory in the former Palestinian mandate immediately following the announcement of the independence of the state of Israel on May 14. They name changed because in the beginning, the entire Arab force was on Palestine’s side. As time went by, some Arab nations dropped out of the conflict because major powers backed Israel and they started to lose land and became isolated.

• Israel is recognized as a nation by the UN.

• Palestine is observed, but not a nation.

Partition Resolution

United Nations General Assembly adopted this to divide Great Britain’s former Palestinian mandate into Jewish and Arab States. Under this, the area of religious significance surrounding Jerusalem would remain in Jewish territory.

Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later British Petroleum)

A British company founded in 1909 following the discovery of a large oil field in Masjed Soleiman, Persia. The British government purchased 51% of the company in 1914, gaining a controlling number of shares, effectively nationalizing the company.

National Iranian Oil Company

A government-owned national oil and natural gas producer and distributor under the direction of the Ministry of Petroleum of Iran. NIOC was established in 1951 and restricted under The Consortium Agreement of 1954. The company does not report its annual revenue. It holds the world’s second-largest oil reserves and has executive control of Iran’s oil and gas supply chain. NIOC’s subsidiaries encompass the breadth of Iran’s oil and gas industry.

Mossadegh

An Iranian politician who served as Prime Minister from 1951 until his overthrow in 1953. He is known for nationalizing the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, which significantly impacted Iran's oil industry and international relations. He also got rid of corrupt military officials and was a key figure in advocating for democratic reforms. He was toppled by a coup aided by the American CIA in 1953.

• His campaign pointer was to nationalize oil, which helped him win the election

• He wanted to negotiate the British out of the oil reserves, but they wanted to stay

• This gave the US concern that if they were leaning away from us, they would be overtaken by communism

  • Both are reasons for the coup in 1953.

1953: CIA/British involvement in Iran

On Aug 19, 1953, elements inside Iran organized and funded by the CIA and British intelligence services carried out a coup d’état that overthrew Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh. Historians have yet to reach a consensus on why the Eisenhower administration opted to use covert action, tending to either emphasize America’s fear of communism or its desire to control oil as the most important factor influencing decision.

Shah Reza Pahlavi

Reigned from 1953-1979. He instituted reforms, fostered economic development, and maintained a pro-Western foreign policy. The majority of his people lived in poverty, and he established a literacy corps and health Corp for the large but isolated rural population.

White Revolution

A national development program that included construction of an expanded road, rail, and air network, a number of dam and irrigation projects, the eradication of diseases such as malaria, the encouragement and support of industrial growth, and land reform. Mohammed Reza also established a literacy corps and health corps for the large but isolated rural population. In the 60’s and 70’s the shah sought to develop a more independent foreign policy and established working relationships with the Soviet Union and eastern European nations.

Savak

The secret police and domestic security and intelligence service of Iran during the Pahlavi dynasty. They had a reputation for ruthless brutality, and extreme torture and humiliation.

1979 Revolution

Due to the White Revolution, concerns over democracy, human rights, and economy were aroused repressed by the Shah’s regime, as well as other socio political repression. Outlets for political participation were minimal, opposing parties were marginalized and outlawed, and social and political protest was often met with censorship, surveillance, or harassment and illegal detention and torture. Secular intellectuals began to argue that, with the help of the ulama, the shah could be overthrown. Khomeini preached in exile and thousands of tapes and print copies of his speeches were smuggled back to Iran. A cycle of protests and violence began and, combined with a revolutionary rallying cry, propelled the country into violence and disorder.

Reasons for the fall of the Shah

• The Shah spent oil profits for top of the line American military hardware

• Little money to reinvest back into the Iranian economy

• Religious leaders angry with the Shah for too much “Westernization”

• Government corruption

• The Shah’s constitutional violations of the basic human rights of his citizens (SAVAK)

Iranian Hostage Crisis

November 4, 1979, after the Islamic revolution overthrew that Shah, Iranian students aligned with Khomeini took over the U.S. embassy in Tehran. They held 53 Americans hostage for 444 days, and released them after the signing of the Algiers Accords on January 20, 1981 (The day of Reagan’s inauguration). The crisis made Jimmy Carter’s administration look weak and ineffective and helped secure Reagan’s election.

Ayatollah Khomeini

Born in 1902, he became an Islamic scholar (studied the Qom) and began to speak out against the Shah in the 1960’s. For this he was arrested and imprisoned by the Shah several times, and after a time fled to Iraq. While in Iraq, he began developing a plan for the theocratic Islamic state that would unite Shia Muslims under the rule of a cleric. After exile from Iraq, he went to France where he continued to write about revolution and produced recordings that were taken back to Iran to stoke revolution. Khomeini returned to Iran on February 11, 1979. Muslim clerics and Iranian soldiers triumphed and a theocracy was created. Khomeini ruled from 1979-1989, when he passed.

Ahmadinejad (former President, controversy, relationship with U.S.)

Elected August 3, 2005. Initially focused on issues such as poverty and social justice, he also took a more conservative approach. He was very active in foreign affairs, vigorously defending Iran’s nuclear program against international criticism, particularly from the U.S. and EU. He called for Israel to be “eliminated from the pages of history”, and labeled the Holocaust a myth. A big controversy was, when giving a speech at Columbia University, he suggested the need for further research on the Holocaust and denied the presence of any homosexual individuals in Iran. Once Obama was elected, he announced he would not be averse to mutually respectful talks with the United States.

Nuclear Program

Began in the 70’s under the Shah, initially relying on the assistance of the U.S. and Europe. By the mid-1970’s Iran had launched an extensive nuclear energy program. The 1979 Iranian Revolution halted the progress of the program for a number of years. The war with Iraq (1980) consumed resources and damaged Iran’s existing nuclear infrastructure. By the 1990’s, it once again began moving forward, now with help from Russia, China, and Pakistan. In October 2003, Iran struck a deal with 3 European countries to suspend its enrichment activities and ratify an Additional Protocol to its safeguards agreement. Iran did not follow through on these commitments, however, and resumed activities the IAEA considered to be related to enrichment. By 2015, a deal involving a limit on uranium enrichment in exchange for an easing of sanction was reached. However, the deal made with Obama was undone with Trump.

Ayatollah Khamenei (current Supreme Leader)

Khomeini appointed a council to revise the constitution, but the work was not completed by his time of death. It appointed Khamenei, but he did not meet the qualifications. Changes to the constitution loosened the qualifications, eliminated the post of prime minister, and strengthened the presidency, and gave the leader significant power to oversee and intervene in political affairs. Initially projected neutrality in presidential elections, he showed subtle favor for conservative candidates, and his son was alleged to have played a role in the surprising victory of Ahmadinejad. Khamenei’s leadership saw its strongest challenge during the presidential election of 2009, when Ahmadinejad was declared the victor and many protests broke out, resulting in a recount, where Ahmadinejad was reelected for a second term.

Women in Iran

Before the revolution, women were not allowed to wear the veil and were ordered to remove headscarves. Many women were already in higher education, but after the revolution there was a marked increase in the number attending university. Picnic are a big part of Iranian culture, and though they are still held now men and women sitting together are much more self-aware and show more restraint in their interactions. You are no longer going to see women walking down the streets with makeup and earrings on display, nowadays women are likely to wear a coat down to their knees and a scarf. After Khomeini took power, he decreed that all women had to wear the veil and thousands of women turned to protest against the law. Men and women aren’t supposed to swim together, but some rent boats to take them far into the sea so they can swim side-by-side. Women are not banned from sporting events, but they are often refused entry to stadiums and some of those who have tried have been detained. Women were allowed to attend sporting events before the revolution.

Saudi Arabia Bedouin Culture

Pre-modern Saudi Arabia. A nomadic culture on the peninsula of Saudi Arabia. Where camel racing came from.

Thobe, Abaya, Ghutra, Igal

Thobe- white robe men typically wear

Abaya- black robe women typically wear

Ghutra- Checkered headscarf many men wear

Igal- Headcord worn by men to hold on the ghutra

ARAMCO, OPEC

ARAMCO- Arab-American oil company

OPEC- Reason for getting off of Middle East oil and trying to find American oil.

Sharia Law in Saudi Arabia

Laws based on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad. Forms the foundation of the legal system and many aspects of life.

• Punishments for crimes such as murder and adultery can be punished by beheading, stoning, amputation, and lashing

• Influences social behavior with things like “religious police”

Women in Saudi Arabia

• The peninsula was first settled by patriarchal, nomadic tribes which strongly believed in separation of women and men. This is still very much ingrained in the Saudi society.

• Saudi Arabia enforces a repressive guardianship system which requires women to get the permission of a male guardian for almost everything.

• Women are also obliged to wear hijabs and dress in a modest manner when in the company of men who are not immediate family.

• In recent years, Saudi Arabia has seen significant changes in the status of women, including reforms that allow them to drive, travel, and participate more fully in the workforce

Norms regarding dress/religious police in Saudi Arabia

• In 2019, Saudi introduced the “Public Decency Law,” which explains what does and does not count as good attire in public for ladies and gentlemen. Basically, loose-fitting clothing that covers to the elbow and below the ankle is recommended for both men and women in public.

• They are tasked with enforcing conservative Islamic norms of public behavior, though their powers have been curtailed in recent years.

  • Including gender segregation, dress codes, and prayer attendance.

  • The new regulations stipulate that the mutawa must promote virtue and prevent vice in a gentle and humane way. They are now obliged to report back to the police and security forces if need be.

Education/Quran in Saudi Arabia

• the study of the Quran and Islamic sciences is a core component of the educational system

• In 2021, the Saudi Ministry of Education merged multiple Islamic subjects into one single book as part of a series of reforms to revamp the school education system

• General education in the Kingdom consists of kindergarten, six years of primary school and three years each of intermediate and high school. After elementary and intermediate school, students can choose whether to attend a high school with programs in commerce, the arts and sciences, or a vocational school.

Modernization under current leadership (vision 2030; MBS)

• The violent austerity that shook the kingdom following the sharp drop in oil prices in 2014 paved the way for the alternative of change embodied by Prince Mohammed with his father’s endorsement

• A strategic framework to transform the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, aiming to diversify its economy beyond oil, develop smart public services, and become a global investment powerhouse, with a focus on a vibrant society, a thriving economy, and an ambitious nation

• They also have a focus on tourism, where they plan to redesign the country’s societal, urban, territorial and tourist landscapes well as numerous artistic, museum and film productions

Killing of Jamal Khashoggi

A journalist who was close with the royal family and, when he fell out of favor, exiled himself to the US in 2017. He visited the Saudi consulate in October 2018 to receive papers confirming a divorce. After entering the consulate, he was murdered and his body dismembered and disposed of.

Anatolia

A peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey.

Millets

A fast growing cereal plant that is widely grown in warm countries and regions with poor soil. The numerous small seeds are used to make flour or alcoholic drinks.

Secularism in Turkey

In the late Ottoman Empire, efforts aimed to form a non-confessional Ottoman identity had short-lived success. In the modern era, however, Turkey’s revolutionary secularization efforts led to unintended consequences, highlighting the challenges of implementing secularism through authoritarian means. The Turkish Republic’s radical and top-down secular reforms, while introducing commendable changes, were too extreme for pious segments of society. The authoritarian approach fostered opposition not only to the methods but also to secularism itself. A more gradual, evolutionary path to secularism might be more effective.

President Tayyip Erdogan; recent political shifts

• His presidency has been marked by democratic backsliding and a shift towards a more authoritarian style of government. His economic policies have led to high inflation rates and the depreciation of the value of the Turkish lira.

• Got rid of secularism within Turkey.

• Tens of thousands of people have broken into protest after his main rival was formally arrested for corruption

• Viewed as a dictator by the West

Roots and impacts of misogyny in the Middle East (Possible origins: imperialism/colonization)

• Men start to exert power over women when they are colonized as a response to the colonizers. If they can’t control what’s happening outside their house, they want to control what’s happening inside

  • Women are not seen as people, they are seen as property

  • The word “hijab” literally means separation

Honor killings and Sharia Law

• Family honor is dependent on the sexual purity of female family members

• When women do something that is deemed to “dishonor” their families, it is can be cause for an attack, often carried out by a father or brother

• In some especially tragic instances, even women and girls who have been raped are slain to remove the stain from the family honor

• Many of these crimes go unpunished, from both men who sexually assault women and men who hurt/kill their female family members

Domestic violence

Courts in Turkey try to combat domestic violence with restraining orders, but failure to enforce them leaves women open to continuous abuse from current and former partners.

Hijab (division or separation)

The word "hijab" in Arabic, meaning "veil" or "screen," can also refer to a separation or partition, both literally and figuratively, encompassing visual, physical, and ethical barriers.

Child brides (Yemen)

Yemen had a civil war caused by a proxy war for Iran and Saudi Arabia. The economy was heavily affected by the war. There is no minimum age for marriage in Yemen, so parents are marrying off their daughters. This caused many issues with sexual assault, a breakdown of family relationships, and sometimes death.

Mustafa Kemal

• The secular republic was founded by him after the fall of the Ottoman Empire

• He undertook sweeping reforms, which modernized Turkey into a secular, industrializing nation

• Ruled until his death (1923-1938)

Ataturk

• Was a dictator

• Turned more democratic at the end of his rule

• Abolished traditions he felt were old-fashioned

• Focused on the industrialization of Turkey

Armenian Genocide

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk wanted to “Turkify” Asia Minor and restore Turkish sovereignty over Anatolia. Between 600k and 1.5 million Armenians were displaced and killed. Turkey continues to deny it happened, and many countries let them to preserve lucrative trade in Turkey. The United States finally recognized the genocide in 2021.

Women in Turkey

• While women have equal rights to men under the law, they face significant challenges in areas like labor force participation, political representation, and protection from violence, with femicide rates being alarmingly high.

• Child marriage, especially in the eastern and central parts of the country, is a problem

• Turkey withdrew from the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women, also known as the Istanbul Convention, in 2021.

Anthony Bourdain: Parts Unknown- Takeaway

Citizens of Palestine and Israel are unified on the idea of peace, and hoping the conflict will end in a way where people do not get hurt. However, Israelis are frustrated with their current leader who will not compromise with Palestinians whatsoever. A man who lost his daughter to Palestinians, and who would most likely be very angry and hateful towards Palestinians, was one of the most vocal people asking for a 2-state solution.

Middle Ground Episode- Takeaway

Palestinians and Israelis felt empathy for each other, regardless of opinions before and after the interaction. Even Ran, who was a big advocate for a 1-state solution and did not budge throughout the conversation, was still able to hold empathy for the Palestinians.