AP European History Unit 3: Absolutism and Constitutionalism (1648-1815)

Productive Classes

The segments of society engaged in manufacturing, commerce, and agriculture that contribute significantly to economic wealth and growth during the Dutch Golden Age.

Dutch Golden Age

A period of great economic, cultural, and artistic prosperity in the Netherlands during the 17th century, characterized by advancements in trade, science, and the arts.

Eighty Years War

The conflict between the Spanish Empire and the Dutch Republic that lasted from 1568 to 1648, leading to the independence of the Dutch Republic.

States General

The federal governing body of the Dutch Republic, with representatives from the various provinces; had far less power than the Estates; mostly handled foreign policy and war

Holland

A region in the Dutch Republic which played a central role in trade and economic prosperity during the Dutch Golden Age; contributed the most to Dutch overall finances; commercially-oriented and favored peace over war

Zeeland

A province in the Dutch Republic known for its maritime trade and significant contributions to the Dutch fleet during the Golden Age, particularly in shipping and fisheries; pro-war

Baruch Spinoza

A Dutch philosopher of the 17th century; denied the immortality of the soul and did not believe in a transcendent deity; was able to publish his work in the Netherlands due to less censorship

Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge

A Dutch naval officer and politician known for his role in the naval battles against Spain and for advocating Dutch maritime interests during the Eighty Years' War; advocated for Dutch maritime trade

Discourse on the State and Trade of the Indies

A significant work by Matelieff de Jonge that analyzes the economic and political implications of colonial trade in the Indies, emphasizing the importance of commerce to Dutch prosperity.

Van der Heyden

A prominent Dutch painter and architect known for his detailed cityscapes, particularly of Amsterdam, and for pioneering perspectives in urban art; painted common people

Johannes Vermeer

A renowned Dutch painter from the Golden Age, famous for his masterful use of light, color, and composition in genre scenes, such as "Girl with a Pearl Earring"; painting featured maps and globes

Navigation Act

a series of laws enacted by the English Parliament that mandated the use of English ships for any goods using English ports

Anglo-Dutch Wars

A series of conflicts between England and the Dutch Republic during the 17th century, primarily over trade routes and colonial dominance; for the most part, the Dutch prevailed, even getting relaxation on the Navigation Acts, with the exception of the Treaty of Breda

Treaty of Breda

Treaty signed in 1667 that ended the Second Anglo-Dutch War, resulting in England gaining permanent control of New Amsterdam (New York)

Johan and Cornelis de Witt

Key political leaders of the Dutch Republic during the 17th century, known for their influence in the governance and defense of the republic, as well as their opposition to the Anglo-Dutch Wars; brutally killed by an angry mob believing that they were preventing the rise of William of Orange to stadtholder for life

Estate

A provincial assembly that was assigned to every province in the Dutch Republic; ruled by an oligarchy; appointed a stadholder for the province

oligarchy

A form of power structure in which power resides in the hands of a small number of people or a specific class. In the context of the Dutch Republic, it refers to a system where a few wealthy elites controlled governance; each Estate was run by one of these.

Stadholder

The chief executive officer of each province in the Dutch Republic, elected by an oligarchy, often acting as a military leader and representing the interests of the local government and the Estates.

Absolutism

A political system where a single ruler holds supreme authority and power, often justified by divine right, with few checks on their governance.

Louis XIV

French king known as the "Sun King," who epitomized absolutism and ruled for 72 years, significantly expanding royal power and influence; built the Palace of Versailles; revoked the Edict of Nantes

Anne of Austria

Mother of Louis XIV and regent during his childhood, she played a key role in the politics of France and supported his ascent to absolute power; increased French military deployments at the end of the Thirty Years War

Cardinal Mazarin

Chief minister to Louis XIV who, alongside Anne of Austria, helped consolidate absolutism in France during Louis's early reign and played a significant role in the Fronde civil wars.

Pieds Nus

A movement of discontent among the common people of France to Louis XIV’s absolutist rule, particularly during the Fronde, which opposed the excesses of royal authority and sought greater autonomy.

Croquants

A rural peasant revolt in France during the 17th century, characterized by opposition to taxation and feudal oppression, often occurring amidst the civil unrest of the Fronde.

Judges of Paris

Judicial officials in the Paris region responsible for maintaining law and order, often serving under the authority of the king during the absolutist period; some resisted Louis XIV’s absolutist rule.

the Paulette

a tax on the officeholding of officials in France introduced in the early 17th century by Henry IV that allowed office holders to pass their positions to their heirs, reinforcing the power of the monarchy while generating revenue, creating a powerful class of bureaucrats immune from state oversight

Nobles of the Robe

A social class of French nobility who acquired their status through officeholding and purchase rather than through traditional hereditary means, often serving in governmental and judicial roles.

Nobles of the Sword

A traditional social class of French nobility who held their status through noble lineage and military service, often responsible for the defense of the realm and maintaining feudal rights.

Jansenism

a Catholic movement that believed in a complete purging of the self and a fervent spirituality to replace the insufficient practices of the Church; believed only intense religious commitment could save France

the Fronde

a series of civil wars in France that took place between 1648 and 1653, primarily involving the nobility, who opposed royal authority and taxation policies. It highlighted the tensions between the crown and the nobility during the early years of Louis XIV's reign.

Palace of Versailles

the principal royal residence of France under Louis XIV, known for its grandeur and as a symbol of absolute monarchy, where the king centralized power and entertained nobility, distracting them from their lack of power.

Jacques-Benigne Bossuet

a French bishop and theologian known for his strong advocacy of absolute monarchy and divine right of kings, asserting that monarchs derive their authority directly from God.

Intendants

royal officials in France who were appointed by the king to oversee local government, enforce royal policies, collect taxes, and ensure loyalty to the crown, thereby strengthening central authority during the era of absolute monarchy.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

a French statesman who served as the Minister of Finance under Louis XIV, known for his policies that aimed to strengthen the economy through mercantilism, promoting industry, and increasing state revenue.

War of Devolution

a conflict between France and Spain in 1667-1668, initiated by Louis XIV to claim the Spanish Netherlands based on his wife Maria Theresa's dowry. The war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, granting France some territory in the region.

Dutch War

a conflict between France and a coalition of the Dutch Republic, England, and the Holy Roman Empire from 1672 to 1678, initiated by Louis XIV in an attempt to expand French territory and influence in the region. The war concluded with the Treaty of Nijmegen, resulting in territorial gains for France.

War of the League of Augsburg

a conflict that took place from 1688 to 1697 involving a coalition of European powers against France, primarily aimed at curbing Louis XIV's expansionist ambitions. It ended with the Treaty of Ryswick, restoring territorial boundaries before the war.

War of the Spanish Succession

a major conflict from 1701 to 1714 involving multiple European powers, including England, the Dutch Republic, and Austria, attempting to prevent the unification of the French and Spanish thrones under the Bourbons. It concluded with the Treaty of Utrecht, which reconfigured the balance of power in Europe.

James I

the first Stuart king of England, who ruled from 1603 to 1625. He is known for promoting the idea of the divine right of kings and commissioning the King James Version of the Bible.

Magna Carta

an English charter signed in 1215 that established the principle of due process and limited the power of the monarchy, laying the foundation for constitutional governance.

Phillip II

King of Spain from 1556 to 1598, known for his role in the Spanish Armada, the expansion of Spanish influence during the Age of Exploration, and his embrace of absolutist rule.

Peter the Great

the Tsar of Russia from 1682 to 1725, recognized for his extensive reforms aimed at modernizing Russia, including the military, government, and cultural practices, and for his efforts to westernize the country; required nobles to serve in the army/civil administration and adopted Western styles and technologies.

Holy Synod

a government authority established by Peter the Great that replaced the Patriarch in the Russian Orthodox Church, promoting control of the church by the state and ensuring loyalty to the Tsar.

Balance of Power

a political theory to prevent any one nation from becoming too dominant, ensuring stability and peace in international relations among states.

Partition of Poland

the idea of maintaining the balance of power sealed the fate of Poland and essentially wiped it off the map for ~150 years; Russia, Austria, and Prussia sign a treaty to divide Polish territory among themselves

Commonwealth of Poland

a federation of Poland and Lithuania that existed from the 16th to the 18th century, characterized by a weak constitutional monarchy; landowning nobles exploited peasants and defied the king; did not have the robust bureaucracy to unite the country; monarch was relatively weak compared to the surrounding absolutist states

Nine Years’ War

a conflict from 1688 to 1697 between France(Louis XIV) and the Grand Alliance, which included England, the Dutch Republic, and the Holy Roman Empire, aimed at maintaining the balance of power in Europe against French expansion.

Grand Alliance

a coalition formed in 1689 consisting of England, the Dutch Republic, and the Holy Roman Empire (Hapsburgs) to counter Louis XIV’s aggression during the Nine Years' War.

Treaty of Utrecht

ended the War of Spanish Succession and stipulated that Phillip V would remain on the Spanish throne, but that Spain and France must remain two separate states; maintained the balance of power in Europe

Professional Armies

military forces that are trained, well-equipped, and maintained by a state, as opposed to irregular forces or mercenaries. They play a crucial role in sustaining the authority of monarchy and state during the era of absolutism; absolutist monarchs increasingly depended on these armies, and were (in the case of Louis XIV) able to raise armies of proportions never before seen

military revolution

occurs in Europe with absolutist rulers getting professional standing armies, funding of expansive armies via taxes and powerful bureaucracies, organization, etc.

Gustavus Adolphus

King of Sweden; built a massive professional standing army, organized into ranks so that the hierarchy of authority was clear

constitutionalism

a political system in which governmental authority is derived from and limited by a constitution, balancing power among various branches of government.

Cavaliers

supporters of King Charles I during the English Civil War, known for their loyalty to the monarchy and opposition to the Parliament.

Roundheads

opponents of King Charles I, mainly composed of Parliament supporters and puritans during the English Civil War.

Restoration

the period in English history after the fall of Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth, marking the return of Charles II to the throne in 1660.

Monument to the Great Fire of London

a structure built to commemorate the Great Fire of 1666, located near the site of the fire, symbolizing resilience and rebuilding; showed the divide between Protestants and Catholics following the English Civil War, as it was inscribed by Protestants blaming Catholics for the fire

Test Act

a law passed in 1673 in England that restricted public office to members of the Church of England, aimed at excluding Catholics from political power.

Aphra Behn

Englishwoman and supporter of the Stuarts who travelled to the Netherlands to gather intelligence on Stuart enemies; author of several plays and novels, including the notable work "Oroonoko," which is one of the first novels in English literature.

Thomas Hobbes

an English philosopher known for his political theories, particularly his work "Leviathan," which argued for the necessity of strong, absolutist central authority to avoid chaos and violence in society.

Leviathan

a work by Thomas Hobbes in which he outlines his theories on social contract and the necessity of an absolute sovereign to maintain order and prevent conflict.

John Locke

an English philosopher who advocated for natural rights, including life, liberty, and property. His work "Two Treatises of Government" greatly influenced democratic thought and the development of constitutional government.

Two Treatises of Government

a foundational text by John Locke that argues against absolute monarchy and emphasizes the protection of natural rights and the idea of government as a social contract.

classical liberalism

a political ideology emphasizing individual freedoms, limited government, and equal protection under the law, rooted in the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke.

17th Century Crisis

A period marked by significant political, economic, and social upheaval in Europe, characterized by wars, revolts, and shifts in power dynamics, particularly during the Thirty Years' War and the English Civil War.

Little Ice Age

A climatic period of cooler temperatures in Europe from the late 16th to the mid-19th century, contributing to agricultural failures, famine, and social distress.

Price Revolution

A period of sustained inflation in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries, largely driven by an increase in gold and silver imports from the New World, impacting economies and social structures.

Thirty Years War

A series of conflicts from 1618 to 1648 involving many European powers, primarily fought within the Holy Roman Empire, leading to significant territorial and political changes.

Albrecht von Wallenstein

A key military leader and strategist during the Thirty Years War, serving as a commander for the Habsburgs and known for his controversial tactics and political ambitions.

Edict of Restitution

An imperial decree issued in 1629 during the Thirty Years War that aimed to restore Catholic properties lost to Protestantism since 1552, further escalating tensions in the conflict.

Louis XIII

King of France from 1610 to 1643, his reign saw the strengthening of royal power and involvement in the Thirty Years War.

Gustavus Adolphus

Swedish king and military leader known for his innovative tactics in the Thirty Years War, playing a crucial role in supporting Protestant forces.

Magdeberg

City in Germany that was besieged and captured by the Catholic League in 1631 during the Thirty Years War, leading to significant destruction and loss of life.

Agricultural Revolution

A period characterized by significant advancements in farming techniques, increased crop yields, and the introduction of new agricultural practices that transformed rural economies and societies in the 15th-17th centuries.

crop rotation

A farming method that involves alternating the types of crops grown on a particular piece of land to improve soil health and increase agricultural productivity; became prevalent in the 15th-17th centuries.

land reclamation

The process of converting degraded or unusable land into productive land, often through drainage, irrigation, or other methods, to enhance agricultural output and improve land use; became prevalent in the 15th-17th centuries.

seed drill

A mechanical device that sows seeds at the proper depth and spacing to improve crop germination and increase yields, significantly impacting agricultural practices in the 15th-17th centuries.

Elizabeth, Countess of Sutherland

inherited vast amounts of land in Scotland and removed hundreds of tenants from her estate, then creating unified acreage for farming and sheep with the help of day laborers, who were cheaper and had no tenancy

tenancy

The conditions under which land is rented or occupied by tenants, typically involving payment and adherence to specific regulations set by the landowner.

potatoes

A starchy tuber that became a staple crop in Europe after its introduction from the Americas, significantly impacting diets and agriculture.

Mechanical Hoe

A farming implement designed in around 1700 to automate the process of tilling soil and cultivating crops, improving efficiency in agriculture.

cottage industry

A small-scale manufacturing business often run from home, where goods are produced by individual artisans or craftspeople, particularly prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.

putting-out system

An early form of domestic production where materials were supplied to households, which then produced goods for merchants, reducing costs and increasing production flexibility; allowed workers to specialize in their trades outside of guilds

guild workers

Members of a professional association that controlled the practice of their craft in a specific area, ensuring standards and regulating trade.

wool industry

The sector involving the production and processing of wool, often focusing on sheep farming, spinning, and weaving to create textiles.

Adam Smith

An influential economist and philosopher in the 18th century known for his works on capitalism and the free market, particularly in his book "The Wealth of Nations." He advocated for self-interest driving economic prosperity.

insurance

A financial product that provides compensation for loss or damage in exchange for regular premium payments, offering protection against various risks; came about during the expansion of trade and commerce in the 17th and 18th centuries.

banks / venture capital

Financial institutions that provide loans and investments to businesses, facilitating economic growth and trade.

mercantilism

a state-driven economic system which emphasizes the buildup of mineral wealth by means of a favorable balance of trade; often associated with absolutism

command economy

An economic system where the government controls and regulates production, distribution, and prices, aiming to achieve specific economic and social outcomes.

market economy

An economic system where production and prices are determined by supply and demand in a free market, promoting competition and consumer choice.

Navigation Acts

Laws passed in the 17th century that regulated colonial trade and enabled England to collect taxes from colonies, restricting trade to English ships.

Poland-Lithuania

A bi-national state formed by the union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, notable for its political system of nobility-led democracy and significant cultural contributions during the early modern period; consensus form of government

consensus

a form of government in which a king was elected; notably in Poland-Lithuania; here, princes were given the freedom to determine their own religion; candidates for king had to commit to religious pluralism

Ukraine

part of Poland-Lithuania’s holdings; the Commonwealth sent its people into this place for settlement of the fertile lands there, often selling estates there to nobility

Mehmet I

The founder of the Ottoman Empire, known for uniting various Turkish tribes and establishing a central authority, he laid the groundwork for the expansion of the empire in the 14th century.

Suleyman the Magnificent

An important Ottoman sultan who reigned from 1520 to 1566, who expanded the empire through a series of triumphs across the Middle East and further expansion into southwestern Europe, North Africa, and the Mediterranean

Janissary Corps

The elite infantry unit of the Ottoman Empire, originally formed from Christian boys taken through the devshirme system, known for their loyalty to the sultan and military prowess.

Ivan the Terrible

The first tsar of Russia, known for his tumultuous reign marked by the centralization of power and the expansion of Russian territory. He is also infamous for his violent outbursts, including the killing of his own son.

Ivan III

A Grand Prince of Moscow who ruled from 1462 to 1505, credited with the consolidation of Russian territories and the foundations for the Russian state. He also successfully ended the dominance of the Mongol Golden Horde over Russia.