Physical Education Unit 4 aos 1

flexibility

‘the ability of a joint to move through its full

range of motion’

fitness tests for muscular power

Seated basketball toss, standing vertical jump

fitness test for muscular strength

1RM bench press, 1RM squat etc

Fitness test for agility

illinoi agility test

fitness test for flexibility

sit and reach test

fitness test for muscular endurance

60 second pushups, 30 second situps

Pre fitness testing considerations

-Physiological factors

-Psychological factors

-Sociocultural factors

Physiological factors:

-Existing injuries: does the participant have any injuries which could affect their participation?

e.g. a back injury that prevents them from bending over.

-Physical health conditions: does the participant have any physical health conditions which could affect their participation?

e.g. high blood pressure which prevents them exercising maximally

-Physical disabilities: does the participant have any disabilities which could affect their participation?

e.g. paraplegia which restricts their lower body movement

Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q)

used to determine an individuals readiness for fitness testing or an exercise program. Helps ensure there are no health risks for the participant.

Psychological factors:

-Mental health: does the participant have any mental health issues which could affect

their participation?

e.g. social anxiety relating to completing fitness tests around others, low scores could effect

self-esteem

-Learning disabilities: does the participant have any learning disabilities which could

affect their participation?

e.g. auditory processing issues which means they cannot listen to test instructions

-Motivation: could the testing act as motivation for the participants?

e.g. participants may be eager to improve pre to post testing scores

Sociocultural factors:

-Cultural beliefs: does the participants cultural beliefs influence their participation?

e.g. in some cultures it may be inappropriate for males and females to do the tests together

Socioeconomic status: does the participant’s financial situation affect their participation?

e.g. may not be able to afford laboratory tests such as VO2 max

Peers: does the participants peers affect their willingness or motivation to participate in testing?

e.g. if peers don’t participate then the individual may choose not too also

Fitness assessment protocols

the rules or procedures associated with fitness testing.

Validity

Reliability

Accuracy

Informed consent

Validity

ensuring that a selected fitness test is suitable for the fitness component we are measuring

E.g. a test such as standing vertical jump is a valid way to measure muscular power, but NOT muscular strength or endurance.

Accuracy

ensuring that fitness tests are delivering results which are

truly reflective of the participants fitness levels.

strategies to increase testing accuracy

-Carefully measuring distances

-Maintaining and servicing equipment

-Ensuring test guidelines are closely adhered to

-Having well-trained test facilitators

Reliability

ensuring that fitness tests will produce consistent and repeatable results, even when carried out in different contexts.

Tests must be able to be performed repeatedly (anywhere) and the same results obtained.

This is particularly important for the completion of pre and post testing, which ideally need to be done in very similar circumstances.

ways to ensure reliability in a test

Conducted at the same time of day

Completed in the same order

Same/similar environmental conditions for both tests

Same equipment/clothing/shoes used for both tests

Done when athlete has had the same preparation ( e.g. same

warm-up, nutrition, hydration levels, activity)

Informed consent

an agreement by the participant to continue with testing after being made aware of what is involved.

As part of informed consent, all athletes should have been explained:

Safeguards for the testing (what will be done if things go wrong)

Description/aims of the test

Methods of testing

Potential risks of the testing

Parental consent (if under 18)

VO2 max test

involves exercising to exhaustion while breathing into a tube connected to a machine (usually in a laboratory). It measures the maximum amount of oxygen a person can take in and use.

Absolute VO2 max

measured as litres of O2 uptake per minute (e.g. 3.8L/min). It does not take into account body weight.

Direct tests (Laboratory Tests)

carried out by sport scientists under laboratory conditions to achieve highly accurate results. Generally only used on elite athletes.

Example of a ‘direct test’ is the Vo2 max test which is considered the gold standard for measuring an athletes aerobic power

The advantage of direct testing is that they are highly accurate, the disadvantages is that they are usually expensive, can be invasive, and require trained professionals to facilitate.

Indirect Tests (Field Tests)

carried out in a training or class setting. Easy to administer but less accurate as they rely on estimations.

A great example of an ‘indirect test’ is the 20m shuttle run or ‘beep test’. The level an athlete achieves can be used to estimate an athletes aerobic power.

The advantage of indirect testing is that they are usually cheap and can be facilitated by nearly anyone, the disadvantages is that they are less accurate than direct testing.

Maximal Tests

require an athlete to exercise until they are close to exhaustion.

Examples include VO2 max, beep test, 1RM and 50m sprint.

Submaximal Tests

do not require an athlete to exercise to exhaustion

An example is the PWC 170, where an athlete rides an exercise bike at increasing intensities until they reach a heart rate of 170 beats per minute

Relative VO2 max

measured as millilitres of O2 uptake per kg of body weight, per minute (e.g. 53ml/kg/min). It is more specific to the person being tested as it takes into account body weight.

types of fitness testing

Direct tests (laboratory tests)

V02 Max test

indirect tests (field tests)

Maximal tests

Submaximal tests

activity analysis

collecting data to identify physiological requirements for a sport or event. The first step in developing a training program.

why is an activity analysis important?

Conducting an activity analysis allows coaches or fitness staff member to determine which fitness components and energy systems are utilised in a particular sport, and design highly specific training programs to enhance these.

activity data is closely analysed following performances to determine

Energy system interplay and contribution to different aspects of performance

Fitness components required for major skills and muscle groups used.

Fatigue factors - how to avoid these next time (recovery during and after performances)

Individual & team playing styles and the effectiveness of “set plays

Aerobic fitness components

Aerobic power

Muscular endurance

Balance

Coordination

Flexibility

methods of data collection

Direct observation (with or without note-taking)

Digital recording

Direct observation/ viewing

Direct viewing/observation – involves live observations of a game/activity. E.g. a coach watching from a coaches box.

advantages of direct observation?

Immediate changes can be made to style of play in response to how the game is progressing (i.e. coaches box).

Player fatigue easily observed and counteracted with use of interchange or “bench” for recovery

disadvantages of direct observation?

Subjective or opinion based decisions (can be reduced with training and increased viewing experience)

No way of showing players how they performed

The pace of the game may be too fast to “take everything in”

Difficult to observe multiple players at the same team

statistical recording

when data collection sheets are completed during direct observation of play.

advantages of statistical recording (a form of direct observation)

Able to discuss performance of players with more objectivity.

Data can be “archived”/ stored and referred to in future Player/performance profiles

disadvantages of statistical recording (a form of direct observation)

Training for observers required prior to accurate recording

Difficult to view and record what is happening at the same time

Extremely labour intensive requiring lots of effort to arrive at game summaries

Players may become obstructed or distant in field of view and “guessing” may need to be used

anaerobic fitness components

speed

muscular power

muscular strength

anaerobic capacity

agility

types of digital recording

Heart rate monitor

Video recording

GPS

Ariel sports technology

Video recording

involves the recording and analysis of an athletes performance using recorded video.

video recording advantages

Can review performance after the activity has taken place

An objective measurement tool Allows performer to see themselves in action

disadvantages of video recording

May require expensive equipment

No objective info provided for intensity

Aerial sport analysis (eye in the sky)

a type of video recording in which the camera is positioned far above the athletes from an aerial view.

advantages of aerial sport analysis

Every player visible for duration of game

Vision in vision allows player to be monitored when “off the ball” and allows tactical decision making to be seen

Increases spectator understanding and following of games

Allows for “third umpire” decisions to be called for by field referee as required

disadvantages of aerial sport analysis

Expensive to set up and requires lots of operators to use the many cameras /recorders (this is increasingly becoming remote operated)

advantages of heart rate monitors

Relatively inexpensive

Generally unobtrusive and doesn’t interfere with performance

Accurate collection of playing intensities

disadvantages of heart rate monitors

Waterproof models are very expensive

Interference from nearby digital transmitters Delay in “real time” signals

Must be close to receiver to obtain immediate data, otherwise need to download after event is finished

heart rate zones (training zones)

Aerobic system – train at an intensity of 70-85% MHR.

Anaerobic glycolysis system – train at an intensity of 85-95% MHR.

ATP-PC system - train at an intensity of 95+% MHR.

to improve the average persons Lactate Inflection Point (LIP), it is recommended to train at 85-90% MHR.

Global positioning system (GPS)

Global positioning system (GPS) – a wearable device that utilises satellites to record: movement patterns, distance covered, speed and duration.

advantages of Global positioning system (GPS)

Measures many different things (movement patterns, distance, speed, duration).

Easily determines players who are “fatiguing” and efforts dropping in intensity (useful for player rotation on and off the bench)

disadvantages of global positioning system (GPS)

Expensive

Some models can be uncomfortable/invasive to wear

Limited contextual data

types of data that can be collected

Intensities/heart rate zones (looked at in previous slides)

Work-to-rest ratio (will look at in upcoming slides)

Skill frequency (will look at in upcoming slides)

Movement patterns (will look at in upcoming slides)

Muscle groups used (will look at in upcoming slides)

Speed/acceleration

Distance travelled

Work-to-rest ratios

Work-to-rest ratios - used to assess the time spent physically working compared to the time spent resting or recovering.

data for work-to-rest ratios

A work-to-rest ratio of 1:1 or higher work indicates aerobic system predominance.

A work-to-rest ratio of 1:2 – 1:4 indicates anaerobic glycolysis system predominance.

A work-to-rest ratio of 1:5 or lower work indicates ATP-PC system predominance.

Movement patterns

Data relating to how much time an athlete spends in different speed ranges, and where these occur within a playing area.

Muscle groups used

Muscle groups used – data related to which major muscle groups are used during an activity.

Skill frequency

Skill frequency – data on the amount of times a particular skill is used within a game. E.g. shot types in tennis.

Heart rate monitor

provides real-time data relating to an individuals heart rate (bpm). A very good indication of intensity

Factors affecting Aerobic power

Haemoglobin levels- –haemoglobin is the oxygen carrying component in red blood cells. Increased levels leads to increased oxygen delivery.

Fibre type- slow twitch muscle fibres have a better capacity to utilise oxygen

Efficiency of heart – higher stroke volume, increased cardiac output etc

Concentration of oxidative enzymes – leads to increased aerobic fuel metabolism

anaerobic fitness components

Aerobic power

ability of the body systems to supply and use oxygen for energy production

fitness component

‘the different aspects that make up a person’s fitness. Can be aerobic related or anaerobic related’

types of muscular contractions

isometric contractions, isoinertial contractions, isokinetic contractions.

static flexibility

‘range of motion

of joints while stationary.’

dynamic flexibility

‘range of motion of joints while moving’

factors affecting flexibility

Age- Flexibility tends to be greatest between the ages of 8-10, making children more flexible than adults.

Gender - Females tend to be more flexible than males.

Joint structure/range of motion – Some joint types allow more movement (i.e. shoulder compared to knee)

Muscle temperature – warming up a muscle will make it more flexible.

muscular strength

‘the maximal

amount of force a muscle can produce

in one contraction.’

factors affecting muscular strength

Age- Muscular strength will tend to peak between 25 -30 years of age and then decline by 1% per year.

Gender- Males have greater muscle mass than females so in absolute terms will be “stronger” by about 30%.

Type of contraction

Length/tension relationship

Fibre arrangement and type

isometric contractions

‘muscle length remains unchanged

(i.e. wall sit, plank hold)’

isoinertial contractions

‘muscle length changes. Can be concentric (muscle shortening) or eccentric (muscle lengthening).’ (i.e Pull ups, bicep curl)

Isokinetic contractions

muscle tension remains the same throughout range of motion. Requires specialised machines.’ (i.e. Treadmill/ exercise bike/ Ski erg).

Pennate muscle fibres

‘arranged on an angle allowing more forceful contractions. Can be unipennate, bipennate or multipennate.’

muscular contractions in order of strength generation

1.isonertial (eccentric)

2.isometric

3.isonertial (concentric)

(Isokinetic is irrelevant)

fusiform muscle fibres

‘arranged parallel to muscle which means faster but less forceful contractions.

order of muscle fiber contraction strength

1. Fusiform

2. unipennate

3. Bipennate

4. Multipennate

slow-twitch muscle fibres (type 1)

‘Slow-twitch muscle fibres (type 1) –

smaller, produce less force but don’t fatigue

as easily

fast-twitch muscle fibres (type 2)

Fast-twitch muscle fibres (type 2) –

larger, produce more force but fatigue more easily

muscular endurance

‘The ability of a muscle, or group of muscles, to perform sustained or repeated contractions’

Factors affecting Muscular endurance

Fibre type – this is the main factor affecting muscular endurance. Slow twitch fibres have greater endurance, and fatigue much less easily than fast twitch fibres.

anaerobic capacity

‘The ability of the body to produce energy without using oxygen.’

Factors affecting anaerobic capacity

Age – Anaerobic power tends to peak around 30 years of age and then decline by 1% per year.

Gender – Males have greater muscle mass than females so will also have greater stores of “anaerobic fuels” (carbs & PC).

Fibre type – Fast twitch muscle fibres can generate anaerobic power quicker than slow twitch fibres because they have greater anaerobic stores of fuels.

muscular power

‘The ability to perform explosive muscular contractions. A combination of strength and speed.’

factors affecting muscular power

Fibre type – fast twitch muscle fibres are able to generate more power than slow twitch fibres

Gender – Males have greater muscular power than females.

Number of motor units recruited

speed

‘The time taken to move the whole body, or body parts from one point to another’

factors affecting speed

Fibre Type – Fast twitch fibres can generate greater speeds than slow twitch fibres.

Efficiency of anaerobic systems – the ability of the two anaerobic systems to produce energy quickly leads to greater speed.

agility

‘The ability to change direction rapidly and accurately.’

factors affecting agility

Centre of gravity – athletes with a lower COG tend to be more agile due to greater balancing abilities.

Fibre Type – Fast twitch fibres can generate greater speeds and are called upon before slow twitch fibres during agile activities.

co-ordination

‘The ability to use the body’s senses to execute motor skills smoothly and accurately’

Factors affecting co-ordination

Stage of Learning – autonomous performers are more co-ordinated than associative or cognitive performers

Amount of practice/Learning – there is a direct relationship between amount of learning and co-ordination (more = better)

Balance

‘The ability to control equilibrium whilst stationary (static) or moving (dynamic)’

factors affecting Balance

Base of support – the greater the base of support, the greater the equilibrium

Centre of Gravity – by lowering one’s centre of gravity, balance is increased