MANA 3318 Final Exam Review

Power

Power

The skill or ability to influence another person. An exchange relationship between an agent (the user) and a target (the receiver)

Influence

The process of affecting the thoughts, behaviors, and feelings of another person

Authority

The right to influence another person. A person may have the authority or right to tell someone what to do but not the power or skill to make them do it.

French and Raven’s 5 Types of Power

Formal (Has authority):

Reward Power

Coersive Power

Legitmate Power

Personal/Informal (Has influence and tends to be more effective. Greater employee satisfaction, commitment, and performance):

Referent Power

Expert Power

Reward Power

Based on agent’s ability to control rewards that a target wants like pay increases, promotions, and bonuses. Manager using this form of power should be explicit about what behavior will be rewarded. Carrot

Coersive Power

Based on an agent’s ability to cause the target to have an unpleasant experience. May be verbally abusive or may withhold support when using this form of power. Stick

Legitimate Power

Similar to authority and based on position and mutual agreement. Agent and target agree that the agent has the right to influence the target.

Referent Power

Based on interpersonal attraction. The target wants to be like the agent. Ex: Social media influencers

Expert Power

When an agent has specialized knowledge or skills that he target needs. Ex: Doctors and tax experts

Intergroup Sources of Power

Control Critical Resources such as:

Information, Time, Networks, and Money

Has Strategic contingencies:

Activities that other groups depend on to complete their tasks. Factors that contribute to Strategic Contingencies are the ability to cope with uncertainty, a hiigh degree of centrality, and non-substituability

Company Reputation strongly influences its power

Zone of Indifference

Power isn’t always a struggle. This is the range where the target submits to the agent’s attempts to influence them without arguing since the target perceives the influence as legitimate.

Criteria for Ethical Power

Utilitarian/good outcomes: Behavior shoudl result in the greatest good for the greatest amount of people

Individula Rights: Rights like free speech. privacy, and due process are respected

Distributive Justice: All parties are treated equally and fairly.

Use Social Power to create motivation or to accomplish group goals not Personal Power which is used just for personal gain and takes a more puppet master approach

Korda’s 3 Tangible Symbols of Power

Office Furnishings (locked cabinets, big desks, seating position)

Time Power (clocks and watches, a full calendar/planner, wear no watch to show nothing can happen without you, place watch face down to show my time is yours)

Standing By (People must be available at all times so you can reach them. More people inconvience themselves on your behalf than you do theirs)

Kanter’s 7 Intangible Symbols of Power

Ability to step in for someone in trouble

Ability to get placements for favored employees

Exceeding budget limitations

Getting above-average raises for employees

Getting things on the agenda at meetings

Access to early information

Having top managers seek your opinion

Kanter’s Symbols of Powelessness

Overly close supervision, strict adherence to the rules, tendency to do the job themselves, resisting change, trying to protect your turf, focusing on budget cuttign and punishing others, dictatorial top-down communication, blaming others for your mistakes

Organizational Politics

Use of power and influence in organizations

Political Skill

Ability to get things done through relationships outside of the formal organization.

Ciadini’s 6 Principles of Influence

Friendship/liking

Reciprocity Norm (return favors and say yes to people you owe)

Social Validation (Follow the majority)

Commitment and Consistency (Align with Prior Commitment)

Authority (follow credible, knowledgable experts)

Scarcity (People want more of what they can only get less of. Ex: Last one left in stock)

Influence Tactics

Pressure: Use threats, demands, or intimidation

Upward Appeals: Persuades you that the request is approved by higher managment

Exchange: You get a reeward in exchange for doing something or reminds you that you owe them a favor

Coalition: Gets others to persuade you to do something. Peer pressure.

Ingratiation: Tries to get you in a good mood so you think better of them before they ask you to do something. Butter them up.

Rational Persuasion: Uses logical arguments and facts to persuade you.

Inspirational Appeals: Makes an emptional request that appeals to your values/ideals or increases your confidence.

Consultation: Wants your opinion in making a decision

Leadership

Process of guiding and directing the behavior of people in a work environment toward a vision or set of goals

Leadership vs Management

Leadership: Deals with setting the direction for an organization, aligning people with that direction and motivating people. Deals with people. People follow your lead and work with you. Wants new ideas and change.

Management: Deals with planning and budgeting, organizing and staffing, and controlling and problem solving. Deals with logistics. People work for you while you instruct from the sideline. Wants stability.

Trait Theory/Studies

Born vs made leaders. Are there specific traits that would differentiate a leader from a non leader? No. Individual traits are more predictive of leader emergence rather than leader effectiveness.

What are some traits connected to trait theory?

High extroversion

High conscientiousness

High stress tolerance (low neuroticism)

High self-confidence

High general cognitive ability

Behavioral Studies

Deals with leader effectiveness. Lewin, Lippit, and White behavioral studies.

Lewin, Lippet, and White Behavioral Studies

Three different leadership styles:

Laissez-faire Style: Hands off approach. Leaving followers alone while you avoid getting involved

Democratic Style: Uses interaciton and collaberation with followers to direct their work

Autocratic Style: Strong directive actions to control the rules, activities, and relationships at work. Dictator

All styles have their pros and cons.

Day-to-day Leadership Behavior

Two broad dimensions, Initiating structure and Consideration

Initiating Structure

Define and organize work relationships and goals

Establish clear patterns of communicaation and ways of getting things done

Production-oriented leadership style

More autocratic

Consideration

Foster nuturing, friendly, and warm working relationships.

Encourage mutual trust and respect.

Employee oriented leadership style

More democratic

Similarities Between Consideration and Initiating Structure

Relationships and tasks behaviors

Follwership

Process of being guided and directed by a leader in a work environment. Must balance questioning or critiquing the actions of the leader with respecting the leader’s authority.

Types of Followers

Effective: Have self-responsibility and management, high organizational commitment, look for challenges, courageous and honest. Have independent critical thinking and are active.

Yes-People: Reinforce leader’s ideas with false enthusiasm (say yes to everything the leader says). Most dangerous for a leader. Are active but have no independent thinking.

Alienated: Disconnected from the leader. Are self centered and bitter. Can disrupt work. Will challenge the leader but in a non-proactive way.

Sheep: Follow blindly and say nothing. No independent thinking and not active.

Leader-Member Exchange

Leaders form two groups, in-groups and out-groups

In-groups: Similar to leader, given more responsibilities, rewards, and attention. More satisfied more commitment, and lower turnover with more freedoms in general.

Out-groups: Less attention and rewards. Are managed by formal rules and policies.

3 Inspirational Leadership Theories

Authentic Leaders

Transformational Leaders

Charismatic Leaders

Authentic Leadership

Have a conscious sense of values, act consistently to their value systems. Have high levels of hope, optimism, resiliency, and self-efficacy.

Transformational Leadership

Inspire others through their vision of change. Open to followers’ co-creation in a common vison. Ex: MLK Jr.

Charismatic Leadership

Uses personal abilities, charm, and talent to affect followers. Greater reliance on the leader where obedience from followers is required. Ex: Hitler

Conflict

A situation with incompatible goals, attitudes, emotions, or behaviors lead to disagreement or opposition between two more more parties.

Can have Task Conflict: About work content and goals

Relationship Conflict: About interpersonal relationships

Process Conflict: About how work is done

Functional vs Dysfunctional Conflicts

Dysfunctional Conflcit: Unhealthy, destructive disagreement between two or more people. Origin is often emotional or behavioral lead to aggressive acts or retaliation, losses may exceed any potential gains.

Functional Conflict: Healthy, constructive disagreement between two or more people. Origin is often cognitive with new ideas, learning, and growth. Improves working relationships. Leads to innovation and change

Types of Intrapersonal Conlfict

Inter-role conflict: Occurs when a person experiences conflict between multiple roles in their life.

Intra-role Conflict: Occurs within a single role, wehna person receives conflicting messages from role senders about how to perform a certain role

Person-role Conflict: Occurs when the expected behaviors of an individual clash with his or her personal values

5 Styles of Conflict Management

Competing

Avoiding

Accommodating

Collaborating

Compromising

Competing

I win you lose. High assertiveness, low cooperativeness. Use in emergencies, with unpopular actions, on important issues where you know you are right, against people who take advantage of non competitive behavior.

Avoiding

No action, we both lose. Low assertiveness, low cooperativeness. Use for trivial or non-priority issues, when you have no hope of satisfying your concerns, let people cool down, when disruption outweighs benefits of resolution

Accommodating

You win, I lose. Low assertiveness, high cooperativeness. Use when harmony and stability are important, maintain cooperation, build social credit for later issues, minimize loss when you are already losing, when you find out you are wrong

Collaborating

We both win. High assertiveness, high cooperativeness. Find integrative solution when both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised. Use when objective is to learn, gain different perspectives, gain committment

Compromising

We both lose and win something: Middle assertiveness, middle cooperativeness. Use when goals are important but not worth the effort or potential disruption of more assertive modes, when opponents are of equal power and have mutually exclusive goals, schieve temporary settlements to complex issues, arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure

To Resolve Conflict as Sender

Avoid accusations and generalizations. Use facts and describe the situation as completely and as objectively as possible. Express your feelings and thoughts about the situation/behavior and take responsibility.

To Resolve Conflict as Receiver

Show interest and that you are listening through non-verbal behavior. Reformulate what has been said using your own words to verify understanding. Ask open-questions to clarify any unclear messages.

Two Negotiation Approaches

Distributive Bargaining and Integrative Negotiation

Distributive Bargaining

Goals of the parties are in conflict and each party seeks to maximize its earnings.

Win-lose (competition) with a fixed amount of resources. Is a zero-sum game where every dollar I make is a dollar you lose. More common in single-issue and one-time-only negotitations.

Integrative Negotiation

Parties’ goals are not seen as mutually exclusive. The focus is on both parties achieving their objectives. Win-win is possible (collaboration). Look for ways to create value and “expand the pie.” More common when parties can resolve the issue multiple ways, trust each other, and may interact again.

Bargaining Zones

Aspiriation Range

ZOPA

BATNA

Resistence Points

Aspiration Range

What you want. Your optimistic goal for the neogtiation. Aka target point, reference or aspiration price. Should be realistic.

Zone of Possible Agreement (ZOPA)

Bargaining room, the range of potential offers in which agreement is possible

Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA)

An outside option that can be pursued if the neogtiating fails and you can’t reach a deal. Your backup plan. The goal here it to prevent you from accepting a deal you would be better off not taking.

Resistance Point

The worst agreement you ar willing to accept in a negotiation before resorting to your BATNA. Your walk away point or bottom line. For seller: the lowest price you will accept, for buyer: the highest price you will pay.

Five Steps of Negotiating

Prepare: Spend 70% of time preparing. Do your research, understand the other side, and plan your strategy.

Information Exchange and Validation: Spend 20% on info exchange

Bargain: 10% on bargaining

Conclude

Execute

Organizational Culture

A pattern of basic assumptions that are considered valid and that are taught to a new member as the way to perceive, think, and feel in the organization. In other words, the way things are around an organization.

What is a Strong Organizational Culture?

Has a consensus on the values that drive the company. Employees definitively agree about the way things are supposed to happen within the organization and behave accordingly.

Three Levels of Organizational Culture

Artifacts

Values

Basic Assumptions

Artifacts

Physical and social manifestations of an organization’s culture that the employees can easily see or talk about

Artifact Examples

Symbols: Logos (Nike Swoosh showing movement and speed)

Rituals: Daily or weekly planned routines (Ending a Walmart meeting with the Walmart Cheer)

Stories: Anecdotes, accounts, legends, myths (Story of Nike. Nike is the goddess of victory and speed in Greek mythology)

Personal Enactment: After work hours emails

Physical Structures: Top management may work in a different building or section. Are offices decorated or void of personality? Are there offices, cubicles, or an open space?

Language: Jargon, slang, slogan on wall

Ceremonies and Rites: Formal events like groundbreaking for a new building or awards ceremony

6 Types of Rites

Rites of Passage: Show that an individual’s status has changed (Retirement dinners)

Rites of Enhancement: Reinforce the achievement of individuals (Awarding certificates)

Rites of Renewal: Emphasize change in organization and commitment to learning and growth (Opening new training center)

Rites of Integration: Unite diverse groups or teams and renew commitment to organization (Company parties or picnics)

Rites of Conflict resolution: Dealing with conflicts or disagreements that arise (Grievance hearings, Union contracts)

Rites of Degradation: Used to publicly punish people how fail to adhere to values and norms of behavior (Publicly replacing a CEO for unethical conduct)

Values

The beliefs, philosophies, and norms that a company explicitly states. These are espoused values.

Enacted vs Espoused Beliefs

Enacted: What a company actually does

Espoused: What a company claims to value and believe in

Does a company practice what it preaches?

Basic Assumptions

Taken-for-granted beliefs that are so ingrained that employees just act on them and don’t have to think about it. Ex: Engineers not intentionally designing a harmful product. Its an assumption that things should be safe.

4 Functions of Organizational Culture

Providing a sense of identity to members and increasing their commitment

Offering a way for employees to interpret the meaning of organizational events

Reinforcing the values of the organization

Serving as a control mechanism for shaping behavior

Stages of Organizational Socialization

Anticipatory Stage: Begins as soon as a potential employee develops an image of what it might be like to work for an organization

Encounter Stage: Beings the day an employee starts work

Change and Acquisition Stage: When newcomers change to internalize the norms and expected behaviors of the organization

Onboarding Training and its Steps

Aimed at enhancing full participation in the organization

4 Steps:

Compliance: Understand company rules, policies, and regulations

Clarification: Understand job and performance expectations

Culture: Understand company history, traditions, values, norms, and mission

Connection: Understand and have working interpersonal relations

Traditional Careers

Typically bounded by age

Get an education, work for one company, then retire

Job security in exchange for compliance.

Upward trajectory along a career ladder

Top-down firm

Corporate allegiance

Career Ladder

Contemporary Career

Not bounded by age

Employee gains work experience and organization gets productivity

Identify with the tasks and work itself while building skills for the future

Care more about the work than the organization itself

People are more independently minded

Protean career

Holland’s RIASEC Model of Career Interests

People choose jobs that match their interests:

Realistic

Investigative

Artistic

Enterprising

Social

Conventional

Realistic

Practical

Preference for working with things rather than people

Manual labor, architect, medical technician, computer technician

Investigative

Curious

Preference for working with ideas rather than people and things

Statistician, researcher, industrial engineer

Artistic

Creative

Preference for working with ideas rather than people and things

Graphic designer, fine arts, brand manager

Social

Preference for working with people rather than things

Cooperative, helpful, caring

Coach, nurse, teacher

Enterprising

Preference for working with people and ideas (projects)

Sales rep, politician, banker, manager

Conventional

Preference for working with paper and numbers

Orderly, typically more introverted

Accountant, Financial analyst, travel agent, insurance specialist

Career Stage Model

Establishment (learning a job, begin to fit in)

Advancement (high achievment-oriented, focus on increasing knowledge)

Maintenance (maintain productivity and evaluate progress towards goals)

Withdrawal (retirement or big change)

Establishment Issues

Stereotyping against younger generations in the workforce. Calling them lazy or entitled.

In reality, there are strong individual differences within generations.

4 Issues of the Advancement Stage

Different Career Moves

Finding a mentor

Dual-Career Partnerships

Managing Conflicts Between Work and Personal Life

Different Career Moves

Can be promoted and demoted (vertical move),or transfered or have a job rotation (lateral move)

Different Zones of Job Difficulty

Explore career paths, maybe get more education

Job Difficulty Zones

Bored Zone

Comfort Zone

Stretch Zone (Feeling a good amount of challenge)

Burnout Zone (Too much challenge)

Finding a Mentor

Mentors have more seniority and experience in a more general area

Agenda is set by the mentee then the mentor supports that agenda

Dual-Career Partnerships

Both partners have important career roles or two career lifestyles.

Ex: Father and Mother

Who should earn more, take care of the kids, do housework?

Whose career is the most important (relocation)

Time pressure

Managing Conflicts Between Work and Personal Life

Flexible and alternative work schedules

Work-at-home arrangements

Compressed workweeks or part time hours

Job sharing

Leave options

Child/elder care

Maintenance Stage Issues

Sustaining Performance

Becoming a Mentor

Sustaining Performance

Challenging when one reaches a career plateu (probability of moving up in one’s career is low)

Firms could respond by involving employees with project teams and lateral moves like a transfer or job rotation

Age discrimination becomes an issue

Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA)

After 40, employees are protected from age discrimination at work. No mandatory retirements.

Becoming a Mentor

Lifespan theory: With age, stronger emphasis on emotionally meaningful goals like sharing one’s experise in a mentorship than on instrumental goals like knowledge acquisition and status attainment.