AOS 2 Learning and memory

Classical conditioning

A simple form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two different stimuli.

Neutral stimulus (NS) ---> doesn't naturally cause a significant response (bell)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) ---> what naturally causes the response (food)

Unconditioned response (UCR) ---> response that naturally occurs in response to the UCS (salivating)

Conditioned stimulus (CS) ---> previously NS, after being repeatedly associated with the UCS, it produces a reflexive response (bell).

Conditioned response (CR) - the learned response to the CS that occurs after conditioning (salivating at the bell).

Operant conditioning

People and animals learn to operate in their environment through voluntary behaviour. ABC - Antecedent, Behaviour, Consequences.

Antecedent

The stimulus that triggers the behavior.

Behaviour

The voluntary response to the antecedent.

Consequences

The event that occurs after the behaviour and determines whether the behaviour is likely to continue. 

Positive punishment

Adding unpleasant stimulus (not likely to repeat behaviour) {whip}.

Positive reinforcement

Adding pleasant stimulus (likely to repeat) {treat}.

Negative punishment

Removing pleasant stimulus (unlikely to repeat behaviour) {no dessert}.

Negative reinforcement

Removing unpleasant stimulus (likely to repeat behaviour) {no homework}.

Observational learning

It is where a learner acquires learning through observing others' behaviour in social situations and the consequences of their actions, guiding their own personal behaviour.

ARRMR

Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation, Reinforcement

Attention

the learner must ACTIVELY WATCH the MODEL'S behaviour and the consequences.

Retention

Once the model has been observed, the learner must be able to STORE a MENTAL REPRESENTATION of the model's behaviour.

Reproduction

The learner must be PHYSICALLY and MENTALLY ABLE to IMITATE what has been observed.

Motivation

The observer must have a DESIRE or UNDERLYING REASON to IMITATE the action, especially by the use of reinforcement.

Reinforcement

When modelled behaviour is observed, the consequences of the behaviour must be observed as well. When a behaviour has been performed and a POSITIVE OUTCOME occurs after performing the behaviour, there is an INCREASED LIKELIHOOD of the behaviour being performed again.

Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory

Three stores of memory that are separate but function simultaneously to create our ability to encode, store, and retrieve information.

Encoding

converting information from STM into a form our brains can store in LTM. Changing the information into an ELECTROCHEMICAL message.

Storage

the process of retaining information in our LTM for future use.

Retrieval

the process of accessing previously stored information in LTM and bringing it to STM.

Sensory Memory

the initial stage of memory processing that includes all information from all senses. Raw sensory information can be transferred to short-term memory if attention is paid to it. Not continuously aware of this stage.

Short Term Memory (STM)

Is a LIMITED store of actively conscious memory, information can be transferred to LTM. Holds all information you are CONSCIOUSLY aware of. Duration is up to 30 sec.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Mental repetition of information.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Makes information memorable by associating it with information already in LTM, IMPROVES DURATION

Long Term Memory (LTM)

The relatively permanent memory system that holds large amounts of information and thought to be unlimited in duration and capacity

Implicit Memory

Memory you do not need to consciously recall.

Procedural Memory (Implicit)

Memory of actions that involve learning how to carry out tasks that are facilitated by motor skills. Difficult to describe 'how', e.g. riding a bike, stirring, walking.

Classically conditioned responses (Implicit)

involuntarily conditioned responses, learning to associate stimuli. The learner is passive (does not have an active role).

Explicit Memory

Information you need to consciously recall.

Episodic memory (explicit)

holds information about specific personal events or experiences.

Semantic Memory (Explicit)

Stores information, like facts learnt about the world.

Explainitory power of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

STR:

• distinguishes between the 3 different stores of memory

• describes how each memory store has a different capacity and duration

LIM:

• may be over-simplified (especially STM)

• Ignore factors such as motivation and strategy

• Ignores possible individual memory

Hippocampus - explicit

Plays an important role in consolidating explicit memories before transferring them for more permanent storage in relevant parts of the cerebral cortex.

Amygdala - both

located at the end of the hippocampus (fear center). Role is in consolidation of the emotional component of explicit memories and essential for the formation of implicit memories.

Neocortex - both

Located in the cerebral cortex, and consists of 6 layers. The region of the brain where explicit memories are stored for later retrieval after they have been encoded by the hippocampus. Plays an important role in integrating the different aspects of explicit memory.

Basal Ganglia - Implicit

A set of brain structures involved in implicit memories and involuntary motor skills. Plays a role in encoding and storing procedural memories, and classically conditioned responses with an emotional component.

Cerebellum - Implicit

Located at the back of the brain, it plays a role in balance, posture, and coordinating fine motor control, and is involved in encoding and storing procedural memories. Also plays a role in classical conditioning.

Iconic memory

A type of sensory memory that is visual in nature, lasting approximately 0.2 - 0.4 seconds. It involves visual encoding and is forgotten rapidly

Echoic memory

A type of sensory memory that is auditory in nature, lasting approximately 3-5 seconds. Involves acoustic encoding and is forgotten rapidly unless moved.

Autobiographical events

Experiences that have occurred at some time in our own lives, involving episodic memory and requiring 'mental time travel' for retrieval.

Alzheimer's disease

a disease that results from a loss of neurons in the hippocampus, causing memory loss and personality change, characterized by a loss of episodic memory in early stages.

Aphantasia

A phenomenon in which individuals lack the capacity to generate mental imagery.

Country

Traditional lands of a particular language or cultural group, including geographical boundaries and spiritual, emotional, and intellectual connections.

Kinship

A means of passing down cultural knowledge, traditions, and stories from one generation to the next, determining access to information and responsibility for passing it on.

Mnemonic devices

techniques used to aid the encoding, storage and retrieval of information.

Oral traditions

The practice of passing down knowledge through spoken word rather than written, including sung narratives that share important cultural, ecological, and survival information.

Song lines

sung narratives that are examples of multimodal performances, by attaching landmarks to a route, and providing survival information through memorable performances.

Method of loci

A mnemonic device that involves relating new information to a familiar journey by attaching that information to landmarks.

Consolidation of procedural memory

A process involving the cerebellum, which is responsible for the storage and refinement of procedural memories.

Acronyms vs Acrostics

Acronyms are mnemonic devices where the first letter of each item forms a pronounceable word (e.g. LOL, SAME, CHASE). Whereas, acrostics are mnemonic devices in which the first letters of the items to be remembered create a phrase (e.g. Every Good Boy Deserves Fruit).