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Equation for Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + light -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 (Reactants: CO2, H2O, Light; Products: Glucose, O2)
Organelle of Photosynthesis
Chloroplast
Stomata
Pores on the underside of leaves that regulate gas exchange (CO2 in, O2 out)
Light Dependent
Occurs in thylakoid membranes, requires light, produces ATP, NADPH, and O2
Light Independent (Calvin Cycle)
Occurs in stroma, uses ATP/NADPH to produce glucose
Oxygen Production
Light dependent reactions
Glucose Production
Light independent reactions (Calvin Cycle)
Chloroplast Diagram
Typically includes outer membrane, inner membrane, stroma, granum, and thylakoid
Photosynthesis Pigment
Chlorophyll
Cellular Respiration Equation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (Reactants: Glucose, O2; Products: CO2, H2O, ATP)
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate, primary energy carrier in cells
Do Plants Respire?
Yes, to break down glucose for energy when light is unavailable
Cellular Respiration Organelle
Mitochondrion
Mitochondria Diagram
Includes outer membrane, inner membrane, cristae, matrix
Anaerobic vs Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic: Uses oxygen, more ATP (e.g., humans); Anaerobic: No oxygen, less ATP (e.g., yeast, muscles under strain)
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Glucose -> Lactic Acid + ATP (in muscles, cytoplasm) [Waste: Lactic Acid]
Alcoholic Fermentation
Glucose -> Alcohol + CO2 + ATP (in yeast, cytoplasm) [Wastes: Alcohol, CO2]
Carbon Released
Respiration, combustion, decomposition
Carbon Removed
Photosynthesis, ocean absorption
Hydrosphere
Carbon stored as dissolved CO2 in water
Lithosphere
Stored in fossil fuels and rocks
Atmosphere
Stored as CO2 gas
Biosphere
Carbon in living organisms
Autotroph vs Heterotroph
Autotrophs make their own food (plants); heterotrophs consume others (animals)
Decomposers
Break down dead matter, recycle carbon (e.g., fungi, bacteria)
Biomass
Total mass of living organisms in an area
Law of 10%
Only 10% of energy is passed to next trophic level
Trophic Levels
Feeding levels in an ecosystem (producers, consumers)
Food Chains vs Food Webs
Chains: linear energy flow; Webs: interconnected chains showing complex feeding
Cheek Cell DNA Extraction
Cell lysis using soap, salt to clump DNA, alcohol to precipitate it
Strawberry DNA Extraction
Easier due to 8 sets of chromosomes (octoploid), same method as cheek but more visible
Nucleotide Components
Phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar, nitrogenous base
DNA Bases
Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine
Sides of DNA
Sugar and phosphate backbone
Bond Between Bases
Hydrogen bonds
DNA Sugar
Deoxyribose
Gene
Segment of DNA coding for a protein
Number of DNA Bases
Over 3 billion base pairs in a human cell
Histone
Protein that DNA wraps around to form chromatin
Base Pairing
A pairs with T, G pairs with C
Introns vs Exons
Introns are non-coding; exons code for proteins
DNA Stands For
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DNA vs RNA
1) RNA has ribose, DNA has deoxyribose; 2) RNA is single-stranded, DNA is double; 3) RNA has uracil instead of thymine
Types of RNA
mRNA (messenger) - carries code, tRNA (transfer) - brings amino acids
RNA Bases
Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, Guanine
mRNA Role
Carries genetic code from DNA to ribosome
Transcription Location
Nucleus
Why Transcription
DNA can't leave nucleus; RNA delivers the message
Three RNA Bases
Codon
Translation Location
Ribosome
Amino Acid Chain
Polypeptide or Protein
RNA Delivering Amino Acids
tRNA
Start/Stop Codons
Start: AUG; Stop: UAA, UAG, UGA
tRNA Match
Anticodon
Ribosome Stops
When it reaches a stop codon
Transcription and Translation Order
mRNA is transcribed from DNA in the cell's nucleus; mRNA leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm; the ribosome attaches to the start codon of the mRNA molecule; tRNA carries the amino acid to the ribosome; ribosome encounters the stop codon and falls off the mRNA; completed protein is released and ready for use.
Silent Mutation
Does not change amino acid
Nonsense Mutation
Changes codon to stop codon
Missense Mutation
Changes one amino acid
Frameshift Mutation
Caused by insertion or deletion, shifts the reading frame
Insertion/Deletion
Adds/removes base, may cause frameshift
Agarose
Gel used in electrophoresis
Restriction Enzymes
Cut DNA at specific sequences
Electrophoresis
Separates DNA fragments by size using electric current
DNA Charge
Negative
Larger DNA Movement
Slower through gel
Order of Mitosis Phases
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (PMAT)
S Phase Is Part Of
Interphase
Photosynthesis Equation
6CO2 + 6H2O + light -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 (Reactants: CO2, H2O, Light; Products: Glucose, O2)
Light Dependent Reactions
Occurs in thylakoid membranes, requires light, produces ATP, NADPH, and O2
Light Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle)
Occurs in stroma, uses ATP/NADPH to produce glucose
Aerobic Respiration
Uses oxygen, more ATP (e.g., humans)
Anaerobic Respiration
No oxygen, less ATP (e.g., yeast, muscles under strain)
DNA Copied During
S phase.
S phase
DNA Copied During
Interphase
DNA is Chromatin During
Nuclear Membrane Changes
Breaks down in prophase, reforms in telophase.
Centrioles Appear
Prophase.
Nucleus Division
Mitosis.
Last Phase of Mitosis
Telophase.
Chromosomes in G1 (start with 4)
4 chromosomes.
Chromosomes in Metaphase
4 chromosomes, 8 chromatids (duplicated).
Phases of Cell Cycle
Interphase, Mitosis, Cytokinesis.
Prophase Visibility
Chromatin condenses, nuclear membrane dissolves.
Cytoplasmic Division
Cytokinesis.
Result of Cell Division
Two identical daughter cells.
Sister Chromatids Attach At
Centromere.
If Cell Has 12 Chromosomes
Each daughter cell will have 12 chromosomes after mitosis.
Uncontrolled Cell Division
Can lead to cancer.
Benign Tumor
Non-cancerous, does not spread.
Malignant Tumor
Cancerous, invades surrounding tissues.
Metastatic Tumor
Cancer that spreads to other parts of the body.
How Cancer Spreads
Through blood and lymphatic systems.
Meiosis
Division creating gametes (sex cells), reduces chromosome number by half.
Gametes
Sex cells (sperm and egg), haploid.
Somatic Cells
Body cells, diploid.
Crossing Over
Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during prophase I.
Synapsis
Pairing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis I.
Tetrad
Pair of homologous chromosomes (4 chromatids) formed during meiosis I.
Meiosis vs Mitosis
1) Meiosis has 2 divisions; mitosis has 1. 2) Meiosis makes 4 haploid cells; mitosis makes 2 diploid cells. 3) Meiosis produces genetically diverse cells; mitosis produces identical ones. 4) Meiosis occurs in gametes; mitosis in somatic cells.