Anatomy and Physiology 1 Final Exam

Afferent Sensory Receptors

from interoceptors (chemo or mechano) to CNS integration. Ex- monitor oxygen or BV stretch.

Efferent Sensory Receptors

from CNS out to effector organs (down white matter motor tracts of cord). Pathway to effector organ is made up of at least 2 motor neurons with a synapse.

Sympathetic

Speeds up (excites) and consumes energy. "Fight or flight"

Parasympathetic

Slows down (inhibits) and conserves energy. "Rest and Digest".

Autonomic Tone

The constant balance between the two branches (sympathetic and para-)

Sympathetic Division

Trunk (vertebral chain) ganglia - serves upper body. Prevertebral (collateral) ganglia - serves below the diaphragm.

Divergent effect

One sympathetic preganglionic fiber has many axon collaterals and may synapse with 20 or more post ganglionic neurons.

Cholinergic receptors

Parasympathetic, always releases ACH. Has 3 synapses.

Adrenergic

Sympathetic, always releases Norepinephrine. Has 1 synapse.

Nicotinic

Found at the preganglionic ganglia, always cholinergic. Can only excite (depolarize) synapses

Muscarinic

At effector organs (postganglionic- parasympathetic). can both excite (depolarize) and inhibit (hyperpolarize) synpases.

Alpha 1 and Beta 1

Excitatory receptors (cx. of muscles, increases release of hormone). Muscles will contract and hormones will be released, excitatory in nature.

Alpha 2 and Beta 2

Inhibitory receptors (relaxing of muscles, decrease release of hormones).

Beta 1

Adrenergic receptor in the heart.

Beta 2

Adrenergic receptor in the lungs, uterus, and skeletal/ cardiac muslce BVs.

Beta 3

Adrenergic receptor only active in infants for burning brown fat -- thermogenesis.

Exocrine gland

gland that secretes into ducts -- onto body cavities and outside of the body.

Endocrine gland

Gland that is ductless.

Paracrine

Hormone that acts on near-by cells without getting into the blood stream.

Autocrine

Hormone that acts on the same cell that secreted it.

Hypothalamus

Produces releasing or inhibiting factors that travel via blood to anterior pituitary. Also produces ADH and Oxytocin that is released by the posterior pituitary.

Pituitary (Hypophysis)

Found in the Sella Turcica of the Sphenoid bone.

2 Capillary beds connected by a portal vein

What allows there to be a direct route to the anterior pituitary from the hypothalamus. Instead of having to go all the way through the blood system until it gets to the A. Pituitary?

Anterior Pituitary hormones

7 hormones, called "tropic" hormones that influence other glands.

Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

Somatotrophin, stimulates secretion of IGF. Target cells = bones, cartilage, skeletal muscle, liver. Also increases blood glucose.

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Stimulates synthesis/ secretion of Thyroid hormones by thyroid gland.

Prolactin (PRL)

Milk production by mammary glands.

Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

Cells from Pars Intermedia. Causes the bronzing of skin color. Controls melanin secretions.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids (cortisol). Released when stressed.

Oxytocin

Released from the posterior pituitary. Affects the uterus and breasts. During labor, it increases smooth muscle contractions of the uterine wall. The trigger is head pressure on the cervix and uterine distension. Keeps the uterus contracted down to prevent hemorrhage. Milk ejection from the mammary glands.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Released from the posterior pituitary. Goes to kidneys to reabsorb more water from urine into blood and decreases sweating.

Thyroid gland

Located on both sides of the trachea, and inferior to the larynx.

T4 (thryoxin) and T3

Follicles in thyroid produce these two hormones.

Thyroid hormones

Hormones that Increase BMR, growth, increases burning of glucose and FA for ATP production.

Para follicular Cells

Produce Calcitonin (CT)

Calcitonin (CT)

Lowers blood Ca by inhibiting osteoclasts and bone resorption. Promotes bone matrix formation. Used in treatment of osteoporosis.

Goiter

Enlarged thryoid. Can be from hypo or hyper thryoidism.

Parathryoid glands

Pea shaped glands embedded on posterior lobes of the thyroid.

Parathryoid hormone (PTH)

Hormone secreted from cheif cells. Increases calcium and magnesium in the blood.

Adrenal Cortex

Outer and largest region of the kidneys. Secretes three steroid hormones.

Cortisol

Stress hormone, secreted from the fasciculata. Increases blood glucose levels. Forms glucose from amino acids/ lactic acids for ATP. Major anti-inflammatory effect. Also prevents organ rejection and treats autoimmune problems.

Epinephrine

Catecholamine, 80% of what is secreted from adrenal medulla - adrenaline.

Norepinephrine

Catecholamin, secreted from adrenal medulla. Converted to epinephrine.

Insulin

Released from beta cells of islets. Growth hormone, increases fatty acid imputs. Increases facilitated diffusion of glucose into cells and out of the blood.

Diabetes Mellitus Type 1

Seen in younger individuals. Autoimmune = islets attacked by antibodies. Beta cells are destroyed = No insulin.

Diabetes Mellitus Type 2

Seen in older obese people. Body cells become resistant to insulin.

Pineal Gland

Attached to the roof of the 3rd ventricle of the brain. Secretes melatonin.

Melatonin

Contributes to the setting of the biological clock. Released during darkness - promotes sleep.

Thymus

Located behind the sternum, above the heart. Produces Thymosin, thymic humoral factor, thymic factor, and thymopoietin. All involved in T cell (lymphocyte) maturation. Immune functions.

Plasma

55% of the total blood volume. 91.5% water. 8.5% solutes.

Hemopoiesis

Formation of blood.

Granulocytes

Eosinophil, basophil, and neutrophils.

B-cells

Differentiate into plasma cells which then produce antibodies. Form and mature in the red bone marrow.

T-cells

Formed in the red bone marrow, but mature in the Thymus.

Hemoglobin

Oxygen-carrying protein.

Neutrophils

60-70%, 1st on the scene. Also a macrophage.

Monocytes

Largest WBC. Enters tissues as macrophage. Take longer, but arrive in larger numbers. Destroy more microbes and clean up debris. Cause purulent puss.

Lymphocytes

WBCs that can live months or years. Major WBC of the specific immune system. B cells, T cells and Natural killer cells.

B-cells

Target bacteria and their toxins.

T-cells

Attack viruses, fungi, cancer cells and some bacteria.

Extrinsic Pathway

Faster, Tissue factor, or Thromboplastin leaks into the blood from cells outside blood vessels to initiate formation of prothrombinase.

Intrinsic Pathway

More complex and slower. Activators are in direct contact with blood or within the blood. Outside damage not needed. Also forms prothrombinase.

Ribosomes

Non-membrane bound organelle, responsible for protein synthesis

Hypotonic

Water moves in to cell causing; (Swelling/Bursting)

Hypertonic

Water moves out of cell causing; (Shrinkage/Crenation)

Istonic

Water moves in and out of cell at same pace. (No Change)

Catabolism

The process of breaking down large molecules into smaller precursors, e.g. digesion of starch into glucose.

Anabolism

Builds large molecules from simple ones; requires energy

Calcitonin

Produced by the thyroid gland, decreases the blood calcium levels by stimulating calcium deposit in the bones; antagonist of the parathyroid hormone.

Parathyroid

four glands embedded in the thyroid; secretes parathormone; controls announces level of calcium and phosphate (which influence levels of excitability)

Melanoma

Least common skin cancer; Most deadly; arises from melanocytes

Basal Cell Carcinoma

Most common skin cancer, arises from Stratum Basael

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

2nd most common skin cancer, effects the Stratum Spinosum

Muscle Types and descriptions

Skeletal: Straitions, Multi-nucleous,

Cardiac: Interculated disc, straitions, single-nucleous

Smooth: lines walls of hollow organs, no straitions, single nucleous

DNA Paring

A....G

C....T

RNA Paring

A...U

C...G

Cancer Cells

Un-controlled growth and spread of cells; Undergo cell division more frequently; Stick together less firmly; Less differentiated; Fail to exhibit contact inhibition

Enzyme

A protein serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that changes the rate of a reaction without being changed by the reaction.

Active Transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

Passive Transport

movement of particles across cell membranes by diffusion or osmosis; the cell uses NO ENERGY,to move particles across the membrane

Thick vs. Thin Skin

Thin Skin: (4 Layers)

No Stratum Lucidum; has hair follicles, sebaceous glands, arrector pili muscles

Thick Skin: (5 Layers)

Stratum Lucidum; found on palm of hand, sole of foot. No hair follicles or associated glands, no muscles

Media Stinum

The space between the two lungs where the heart, blood vessels, esophagus, and lymph node are found.

Stratum Basal

*Where mitosis occurs

*Deepest

*Columnar shaped cells

Levels of Hierarchy

1.) Chemical- atoms

2.) Cell Level - cells

3.) Tissue Level - group of cells & surrounding material

4.) Organ Level- two or more tissue types

5.) Organ System Level - heart, bladder and kidney

6.) Orgainism Level - organ systems = orgainisims

pH scale

Used to measure the concentration of H+ ions in a solution;

(0 ----> 7 is acidic)

7 is neutral

(7 ---->14 is basic)

Sperm & Eggs

No Mitosis

Metabolism

Sum of all chemical processes that occur in an organism

Plasma Membrane

thin flexible barrier that regulates what enters and exits the cell; composed of two layers of lipids

Articulations

body movement occurs at joints(articulations) where two bones connect

Cilia

Extension of Plasma Membrance; Contains microtubules; Moves materials over surface of cell

Ependymal Cells

Neuroglia in choroid plexuses; Line brain and spinal cord. Specialized ependymal form choroid plexuses; Secrete spinal fluid (cilia move it)

Shwan Cells

Myelinated axons in the PNS

Lipids

do not dissolve in water (fats, oils, and steroids) make up cell membranes, store energy

Carbs

includes sugars,cellulose,& starch;nutrients that provide greatest source of energy.(Bulk in fences) Helps maintain healthy digestive system.

Proteins

Source of energy. needed by tissue for repair and growth. made up of 20 amino acids.

Nucleci Acids

very large and complex organic molecules that store and transfer important information in the cell

Osteoblast

Bone forming, prodce collagen

Osteoclast

Breakdown of bone

Molecules in all living orgainisims

Carbs, Lipids, Proteins, Nuclaic Acids

4 Tissue Types of the Body

~Connective- most abundant; support and protection(bone,blood,cartilage)

~Muscular- skeletal, smooth, cardiac muscles

~Nervous- recieves and conduct stimulis

~Epithelal- covers bodies surface & most internal organs; protection, absorbtion, filtration, secretion