Exam 2 Reiview

What do steroid hormones transport and how do they diffuse?

They transport thyroid hormones that diffuse easily through the lipid bilayer of cell membranes

Where are intracellular located

In the cytoplasms or in the nucleus of the target cell

How is gene expression changed

They are changed by binding of the hormone receptor complex to specific DNA binding sites

Downregulation

The process of decreasing the total number of receptor sites present in cells or tissues, resulting in reduced responsiveness under conditions of prolonged agonist activation

Upregulation

The gradual increase in the number of receptor sites

How are hormone levels maintained

Through negative feedback loops

What regulates TRH and TSH through the concentration of circulating T3?

Negative feedback

What are thyroid hormone effects?

Increased BMR

Increased heat production

Fight or flight

Increased responsiveness of heart

Essential for normal growth

What are the effects of growth hormone?

(Liver) Increased protein synthesis

Increased bone and cartilage linear growth

Increased organ size and function

Increased lean muscle mass

What is cortisol

“stress hormone” influences, regulates, or modulates many of the changes that occur in the body in response to stress

• increases catabolism, muscle breakdown, free fatty acids, blood glucose, sns response

• suppresses the immune and inflammatory systems

Primary glucocorticoid and negative feedback suppresses adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release

What is aldosterone

Mineralocorticoid regulated by the presence of angiotensin II (brings up sodium levels)

What are androgens

Sex hormones

What are the actions of the anti diuretic hormone (ADH)

increases water absorption which decreases blood osmolarity

Diabetes insipidus

polyuria too little adh

• large volumes of dilute urine are excreted

• leads to severe fluid imbalances

What happens to Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) when calcium decreases?

PTH increases

What does melatonin do?

regulates the circadian rhythm by chemically causing drowsiness an lowering the body temperature

What happens during the regulation of blood glucose after a meal?

Blood glucose increases

Insulin secretion increases

Glucagon secretion decreases

Cellular uptake of glucose and formation of glycogen

What happens to blood glucose between meals?

Blood glucose decreases

Insulin secretion decreases

Glucagon secretion increases

Glycogen is broken down into glucose, and noncarbohydrates are converted to glucose.

Diabetes Mellitus

Juvenile onset, absolute insulin deficiency

Type 2 diabetes

Insulin resistance, genetic predisposition, environmental factors, cells don’t respond to insulin,

• decreases glucose uptake, hyperglycemia, type 2 diabetes

How does Diabetes Mellitus affect urine osmolarity?

It increases urine osmolarity and causes polyuria

What are things that cause osmotic diuresis

Increased blood glucose—> increases glomerular filtration of glucose—> increasing of osmotic pressure of renal tubular fluid—> less water reabsorption —> osmotic diuresis

What is the main protein

Albumin

others are: globulin and fibrinogen

Average hematocrit percentage

45% for men

40% for women

What are the main electrolytes

sodium and chloride

What do red blood cells do?

Pick up oxygen from the lungs to distribute to the tissues, they are bags of hemoglobin

what are the shape of Red blood cells

small biconcave discs so they can squeeze through capillaries (reverse deformability)

What do RBC not have

No nucleus or mitochondria

what is the adult hemoglobin made up of

2 alpha chains

2 beta chains

each protein contains a heme group that oxygen binds to

composed of iron and protoporphyrin

what does the kidney do

it releases a hormone (erythropoietin) to tell bone marrow to increase and release more RBC

What is heme processed to after phagocytes from the spleen, liver, bone marrow, and lymph destroy RBC

Heme is processes to bilirubin

If you have type A blood which anti bodies do you have

Anti B antibodies

If you have type B blood which anti bodies do you have

Anti A antibodies

If you have type AB blood which anti bodies do you have

None

If you have type O blood which anti bodies do you have

both anti A and anti B antibodies

What is sickle cell anemia

inherited recessive disorder that mom and dad are both carriers of

affects the beta chain

how are platelets formed

Fragmentation of megakaryocytes in bone marrow

they live for ten days then are removed by the spleen

Intrinsic pathway

Initiated when blood comes into contact with altered vascular endothelium

Extrinsic pathway

begins when the vascular wall is traumatized (crush injury)

coagulation cascades

when both intrinsic and extrinsic lead to common final pathway

• prothrombin to thrombin

• fibrinogen to fibrin (clot)

FORMATION OF A BLOOD CLOT

what does prothrombin refer to?

Extrinsic pathway

what does thromboplastin refer to

intrinsic

what are blood coagulation factors synthesized by

the liver

what are coagulation factors dependent on for synthesis

vitamin k

what is the process of breaking down a clot

Plasminogen turns into plasmin due to the plasminogen activator, and then fibrin breaks down the clots

Idiopathic Thrombocytopenia Purpura

Bleeding or indications of bleeding

Systolic

when heart is contracted, blood pressure rises and blood moves out along the vessels

Diastole

when the heart is relaxed, blood pressure falls, and blood fills the heart

what are the function of valves

enable one way flow through the heart

Why do we have papillary muscles

to prevent retrograde flow

what does venous return equal

cardiac output

what are the arteries that we can palpate

temple, carotid (neck), radial (wrist), femoral (groin), pedal (foot), posterior tibial (ankle)

What does cardiac output equal

Heart rate X stoke volume

what does blood pressure equal

Cardiac output x total peripheral resistance

What happens due to voltage-gated fast sodium channels open at the threshold (STEP 1)

Rapid depolarizaiton

what happens at plateau (STEP 2)

slow calcium channels open allowing calcium influx

STEP 3 what happens when the slow calcium channels close

Repolarization, slow potassium channels open

what electrically connect the heart cells

gap junctions

Conduction system of the heart

SA node

AV node

AV bundles (bundle of his)

Right and Left bundle branches

Purkinje fibers

P wave

corresponds to atrial depolarization

QRS complex

represents ventricular depolarization

T wave

Reflects ventricular repolarization

Bradycardia

when heart rate is slower than normal <60bpm

Tachycardia

when heart rate is faster than normal >100bpm

Ventricular Fibrillation

life-threatening condition that can cause sudden cardiac death. It occurs when the heart’s lower chambers quiver instead of contracting normally preventing the heart from pumping blood

first heart sound

closure of mitral and tricuspid valves

Second heart sound

closing of aortic and pulmonary valves

When does coronary flow primarily occur

in diastole

Extravascular compressive forces

The heart influences its blood supply by the squeezing effect of the contracting myocardium on the blood vessels coursing through he heart

Atherosclerosis

diseases that affect the arteries, they become stiff and narrow due to the deposition of fats, cholesterol, and other substances.

Myocardial infarction

sudden death of a patch of myocardium resulting from long t-erm obstruction of coronary circulation

what is responsible for the regulation of cardiac output

the cardiovascular center in the medulla oblongata

what does cardiac output equal

stroke volume x heart rate

what does blood pressure equal

cardiac output x systemic vascular resistance

where is most blood stored

in the veins