Roman History & Politics: From Monarchy to Empire

the nature of Roman militarism

a professional, disciplined, and adaptable military that served as the backbone of imperial expansion and internal order

what Vergil's Aeneid is and what it meant in the 1st century BCE

recounts the mythic founding of Rome through the journey of the Trojan hero, Aeneas. During the reign of Emperor Augustus, it served as a national epic intended to provide a powerful, unifying origin story for the new Roman Empire.

the story of Romulus and Remus

tells the story of twin brothers who were the legendary founders of Rome. They were the sons of the war god Mars and a vestal virgin, Rhea Silvia, and were abandoned in the Tiber River as infants to be drowned. A she-wolf found and nursed them, and a shepherd raised them, but they eventually fought over where to build their city, resulting in Romulus killing Remus. Romulus then founded the city and named it Rome after himself.

Lucius Iunius Brutus

(Lucretia's uncle and avenger; first consul of Rome with Tarquinius Collatinus; Rome's "Liberator:" "Oath of Brutus;" mythical ancestor of historical Marcus Iunius Brutus, one of the assassins of Julius Caesar)

the end of the Roman monarchy and foundation of the Republic

The Roman monarchy ended in 509 BCE when the last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown, leading to the establishment of the Roman Republic. This transition was prompted by the king's tyrannical rule and a specific incident involving the rape of a noblewoman, Lucretia, by the king's son, which sparked an uprising led by Roman aristocrats

the influence of the Roman senate

controlling finances and foreign policy, influencing legislation through its prestige and debate, and providing guidance on domestic matters

Rome's relationship with Carthage in the 3rd century BCE

evolved from one of tolerance and defined spheres of influence to intense rivalry, sparking the First Punic War in 264 BCE.

the concepts of gloria and dignitas

DignitasMeaning: Dignity, prestige, rank, and personal worth. Gloria Meaning: Glory, fame, renown, or honor.

what the cost of empire was for Rome

Wealth inequality; urban poor, disenfranchised farmers (veterans) • Competition between elites enters a new phase, larger, more difficult, more expensive • Social unrest increasing in Italy and the city of Rome

the Gracchi

Refers to the Roman brothers, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, who were tribunes of the plebs in the 2nd century BCE and advocated for social and political reforms to aid the lower classes. Their attempts to address economic inequality through land reform and other measures like subsidized grain provoked strong opposition from the senatorial aristocracy, leading to both brothers being killed.

Marius

Marius was a successful Roman general whose military innovations created the professional army of the late Roman Republic and early Empire. Representing the Popular Party, he was elected consul seven times.

Sulla

Powerful commander -- earned his men's loyalty; general who used his army for his political advantage -- started a civil war in Rome; killed his enemies; reduced power of tribunes, more power to patricians

Marcus Tullius Cicero

considered to be the greatest of the Roman orators, and was, among other things, a lawyer, politician, and philosopher

the impact of the Ides of March on Roman history

The Ides of March, March 15, 44 BC, had a catastrophic impact on Roman history by leading to the assassination of Julius Caesar and triggering a series of civil wars that ultimately destroyed the Roman Republic and led to the rise of the Roman Empire under Augustus.

Marcus Antonius (Marc Antony) & his compromise after Caesar's death

After Caesar's death, Marc Antony negotiated a political compromise with Caesar's assassins, securing a public funeral for Caesar, which he used to incite a riot with his funeral oration. This allowed him to seize control of Caesar's papers and treasury, but his subsequent conflict with Caesar's heir, Octavian, and his deteriorating reputation in Rome ultimately led to the formation of the Second Triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus to restore order and a civil war that Antony ultimately lost

the triumvirate

in ancient Rome, a group of three leaders sharing control of the government.

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa

Roman General in the first century BCE, renovated the aqueduct "Aqua Marcia" and extended the pipes to cover more of the city. Enlarged and cleaned the Cloaca Maxima (Sewer System)

Cleopatra VII

Cleopatra VII was the Egyptian Queen who developed an alliance between Marc Anthony. Cleopatra VII fought in the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E. along side Marc Anthony. Their army and navy was destroyed Octavian. Antony and Cleopatra both fled to Egypt and committed suicide a year later in 30 B.C.E.

the battle of Philippi

Battle in which Antony and Octavian defeated Brutus and Cassius in 42BC.

the division of the empire between Octavian and Antony

Following Julius Caesar's assassination, Octavian and Mark Antony formed the Second Triumvirate with Lepidus, dividing the Roman Empire in 43 BCE. Octavian was given the western territories, Antony received the eastern provinces, and Lepidus was assigned Africa. This arrangement was temporary and led to conflict, with Octavian eventually defeating Antony and consolidating control over the entire empire.

Battle of Actium

battle between Marcus Antony and Octavian for control of the empire. Octavian won in 31 B.C.

Res Gestae

Latin for "things done." Statements made by a person present at the time of an alleged negligent act that are admissible as evidence in a court of law.

the Ara Pacis

aka Altar of Peace. Built ca. 13 - 9 BCE Commissioned by Augustus for peace. Relief sculpture portrays Romans and Augustus' love for them. Touching portrayal of children clinging to parent. Showing elements of real Roman people. Emphasizes family. A different panel shows Augustus' promise of food. Seres is Goddess of the harvest (feeding children).

the significance of the Middle Way

28 BCE - Octavian acknowledges that Agrippa, his co-consul and he are true equals. • 27 BCE - January; Octavian hands back all authority to the senate and the people • agrees to remain consul • agrees to take responsibility for Spain, Gaul, Cilicia, Cyprus, Syria, and Egypt for 10 years • 'First Settlement' - Octavian becomes Augustus

princeps and its importance to the atmosphere of Octavian's rise to power

it allowed him to consolidate total control over the Roman state while maintaining the illusion of a restored republic. The title, meaning "first citizen," created an atmosphere of political stability and deference to tradition that was essential for legitimizing his autocratic rule after decades of devastating civil wars.

Augustus

(63 BCE - 14 CE) First emperor of Rome (27 BCE - 14 CE) He restored order and prosperity to the Empire after nearly a century of turmoil. Grandnephew to Julius Caesar.

auctoritas

Latin term referring to the intangible social prestige, influence, and respect a person possessed in ancient Rome

the importance of the Second Settlement

crucial for consolidating power under Augustus, solidifying the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire by granting him lifelong, powerful offices that disguised his autocratic rule under a veneer of republican tradition

the nature of Augustus' dynastic plans

complex strategy of using family, adoption, and strategic marriages to create a ruling dynasty and ensure a stable succession for the Roman Empire. He carefully placed family members in key political and military roles to consolidate power and passed his authority to heirs he selected through adoption, such as Tiberius.

Julia Augusti

he only blood child of Octavian, later Augustus, the only child from his politically motivated marriage with Scribonia, his second wife

pudicitia

the virtue of modesty, chastity, and sexual decency, particularly as it applied to women in ancient Rome. It encompassed not just sexual behavior, but also social and moral duties, and was so important that it was personified as a goddess with her own cult.

Julia's children

Jaius Caesar, Julia the Younger, Lucius Caesar, Agrippina the Elder (mother of Caligula), and Agrippa Postumus (a posthumous son).

marriage laws of Augustus

aimed to encourage marriage and childbirth to increase the native Roman population. These laws imposed penalties on unmarried men and women who were not producing children, rewarded citizens who had children, and placed restrictions on marriages between different social classes, prohibiting senators and their descendants from marrying freedpeople, actors, and others deemed "disreputable" (infamia).

familia

Most families nuclear, not extended• fertility rate higher• high mortality rate

paterfamilias

the head of the family or household in Roman law -always male- and the only member to have full legal rights. This person had absolute power over his family, which extended to life and death.

Roman childhood

From birth, children were subject to the authority of their pater familias (head of the family). At age seven, children began formal education, learning to read, write, and perform arithmetic, often using wax tablets. For wealthy boys, education continued in grammar and rhetoric, while most girls' formal education ended after primary school to prepare them for domestic duties.

comitas

congeniality (the quality of being friendly, pleasant, and agreeable, or the state of having similar tastes, temperaments, and interests)

civilitas

accessibility

succession of Tiberius

Tiberius designated his great-nephew Gaius, known as Caligula, as his successor shortly before his death in 37 AD. Despite having previously named his grandson Gemellus as a joint heir, Tiberius died, and with the support of the Praetorian Guard, Caligula seized sole power.

reign of Gaius Caligula

marked by extravagance, cruelty, and financial ruin, which ended with his assassination. Initially completing public works and providing relief, his rule quickly descended into tyranny through lavish personal projects, excessive spending, and the execution of perceived enemies.

accession of Claudius

Claudius became emperor in 41 AD after the assassination of his nephew, Caligula, when the Praetorian Guard found him hiding and proclaimed him emperor. The Senate initially debated alternatives, but ultimately had no power to oppose the military's choice and formally confirmed Claudius, marking the first time a Roman emperor was chosen by the army rather than the Senate.

the life of Claudius by Suetonius

biography of the fourth Roman emperor, detailing his childhood marked by physical ailments and the resulting social neglect, his unexpected rise to power after the assassination of Caligula, and his efficient but often criticized reign.

importance of the marriage of Agrippina the Younger to Claudius

it allowed her to consolidate power and secure her son Nero's position as heir to the Roman throne. By marrying her uncle, Claudius, she became empress and influenced him to adopt Nero, displacing Claudius's own son Britannicus. This union ultimately led to Nero's succession after Claudius's death in 54 CE, a death Agrippina was suspected of causing to expedite her son's rise to power.

Nero as emperor

Initially guided by his advisors, he focused on arts, public games, and diplomacy, even reducing taxes and showing a degree of respect for the Senate. However, he became increasingly notorious for cruelty, including the murders of his mother and wives, and the Great Fire of Rome, which led to the persecution of Christians. His reign ended in 68 AD when he was deposed and committed suicide after facing rebellion.

Pliny the Elder his military career

began in Germania Inferior in 46 C.E., where he served as a junior officer and eventually rose to the rank of cavalry commander. His service included participating in the conquest of the Chauci and the construction of a canal between the Maas and Rhine rivers. He was promoted to military tribune under the command of Publius Pomponius Secundus and likely fought in the campaign against the Chatti in 50 C.E

Pliny the Elder his literary career and the works he wrote

first book was a treatise on spear throwing from horseback,Life of Pomponius Secundus• History of the Germanic Wars. most famous and only surviving work being the 37-volume Natural History. This ambitious project aimed to systematize all human knowledge about the natural world and was created through the review of hundreds of ancient texts.

Vesuvius and the destruction of Pompei

it was destroyed in 79 CE when a nearby volcano, Mount Vesuvius, erupted, covering it in at least 19 feet (6 metres) of ash and other volcanic debris

Pliny the Younger: his political career

Huge amount of diffrent roles consul (100 CE)• augur (103/104 CE)• legatus Augusti pro praetore consularipotestate (Pontus and Bithynia) (110 CE)• curator of the bed and banks of the Tiberand sewers of Rome (104-106 CE)• prefect of the treasury of Saturn (98-100 CE)• prefect of the military treasury (94-96 CE)• praetor (93 CE)• tribune of the people (91 CE)• quaestor of the emperor (88 or 89 CE)• commissioner of the Roman equestrians(80s CE)• tribune of the Third Gallic legion (81 CE)• magistrate on the Board of Ten (81 CE)

Domitian (emperor from 81 CEto 96 CE)

Pliny the Younger: education

Tutoring by Lucius Verginius Rufus, followed by advanced studies in rhetoric in Rome under the guidance of the famous teacher Quintilian. His education was overseen by his uncle, Pliny the Elder, who adopted him after his father's death.

Pliny the Younger Letters

The Epistulae are a series of personal missives by Pliny the Younger directed to his friends and associates. These Latin letters are a unique testimony of Roman administrative history and everyday life in the 1st century.

Pliny the Younger his relationship with the emperor Trajan

had a professional relationship characterized by a superior-subordinate dynamic, with Pliny acting as a governor seeking guidance from his emperor. Their correspondence, preserved in Book 10 of Pliny's letters, shows Pliny's respect for Trajan as he sought advice on provincial administration, most notably on how to deal with Christians in his province of Bithynia et Pontus.

the Year of Four Emperors (69 CE)

a period of civil war in the Roman Empire following the death of Emperor Nero, where four men—Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian—successively claimed the throne. The crisis highlighted the instability of Roman imperial succession, with powerful generals using their armies to seize power. It concluded with Vespasian defeating his rivals and establishing the Flavian Dynasty, which restored stability to the empire.

the Flavian dynasty: Vespasian

was Roman emperor from 69 to 79. The last emperor to reign in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the empire for 27 years.

the Flavian dynasty: Titus

Titus was a Roman emperor and a member of the Flavian dynasty, reigning from 79 to 81 A.D. He is known for completing the Colosseum and for his role in the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. His brief reign was marked by a generosity that earned him the nickname "delight of mankind" but was also filled with major natural disasters, including the eruption of Mount Vesuvius and a fire that devastated Rome.

the Flavian dynasty: Domitian

Domitian (/dəˈmɪʃən, -iən/ də-MISH-ən, -⁠ee-ən; Latin: Domitianus; 24 October 51 - 18 September 96) was Roman emperor from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavian dynasty. Described as "a ruthless but efficient autocrat",[6] his authoritarian style of ruling put him at sharp odds with the Senate, whose powers he drastically curtailed.

the Flavian dynasty: lex de Imperio Vespasiani

a pivotal Roman law passed in 69-70 CE that granted Vespasian his imperial powers, formally establishing the Flavian dynasty. It legitimized his rule by conferring upon him all the powers and authority that had previously been held by Roman emperors. A surviving bronze tablet of this law can be seen at the Capitoline Museums in Rome.