SOC 383 Exam 1 Retake Review

Descriptive Research

Research in which social phenomena are defined and described

Exploratory Research

Research that seeks to find out how people get along in the setting under question, what meanings they give to their actions, and what issues concern them

Explanatory Research

Research that seeks to identify causes and effects of social phenomena and to predict how one phenomenon will change or vary in response to variation in some other phenomenon

Evaluation Research

Research that describes or identifies the impact of social policies and programs

Selective observation

Choose to observe a select few

Inaccurate observations

General errors/misjudgements

Over generalization

Assuming true for all/larger group

Illogical Reasoning

Jumping to conclusions

Resistance to change

A reluctance or unwillingness to adapt to new ideas, practices, or conditions

Independent Variable

• Cause

• Factors that INFLUENCE

Dependent Variable

• Effect

• Factors that ARE INFLUENCED

IV —> Mediating Concept —> DV

All or part of the relationship is explained by the outside mediator influencing both pieces

IV —> Moderating Concept —> DC

The moderator changes the outcome based on its involvement from IV to DV

Example of a mediating concept

Social class —> GPA (mediate) —> School funding/resources

Example of a moderating concept

Education —> Gender —> Wages

IV X —> X DV

Confounder impacts both separately and they are not actually related

Example of confounding variable

Ice Cream X —> X Drowning

(Confounder is season)

Measurement Validity

• Exists when a measure measures the thing we think it measures

• Are we actually measuring the concepts we think we are?

Face Validity

Appears appropriate and valid on its face; Layperson can understand

Content Validity

Fully captures concepts

Criterion Validity

Values/measures can be compared with a more direct/already valid source of measure

Example of Criterion Validity

Direct/objective (statistics) vs. Indirect/subjective (self-report)

Construct Validity

No criterion is available, showing relationship between concepts based on prior research

Causal/Internal Validity

How confident are we that X—>Y?

___ from theory to data

Deduct

___ from data to theory

Induct

Concept

Mental image that summarizes a set of similar observations, feelings, or ideas

Conceptualization

The process of specifying what we mean by a term; Used to make sense of related observations

Operationalism

The process of specifying the measures that will indicate the value of cases on a variable; Connects concepts to measurement

Nominal Level of Measurement

Categorical, no order or ranking

Ordinal Level of Measurement

Categorical with ranking

Ratio Level of Measurement

Fixed value units with a meaningful zero point

T/F - Reliability is easier to test than validity

True

Multiple Times Reliability

Test-retest Reliability

Intra-rater Reliability

Alternate forms Reliability

Multiple Items Reliability

Inter-term Reliability

Split-half Reliability

Multiple Observers Reliability

Interobserver

Intercoder

Interobserver Reliability

Consistency in measurement by 2 different observers

Intercoder Reliability

Consistency in coding by 2 different coders

Sample

A subset of a population used to study the population as a whole

Elements

The individual members of the population whose characteristics are to be measured

Sampling Frame

List of all elements in the population to draw samples from; We often rely on to pull from

Sample Unit

Units lifted from each stage of multi-stage design

Sample Unit

Units lifted from each stage of multi-stage-design

Sample Error

Your statistics of sample are different from the population

Systematic Random Samples

A method of sampling in which sample elements are selected from a list or from sequential files, with every nth element being selected after the first element is selected randomly

Simple Random Samples

A method of sampling in which every sample element is selected purely on the basis of chance through a random process

Proportionate Stratified Random Samples

Sampling method in which elements are selected from strata in exact proportion to their representation in the population

Disproportionate Stratified Random Samples

Sampling in which elements are selected from strata in proportions different from those that appear in the population

Multistage Cluster Sampling

Randomly selecting at each level/stage of the clusters

Convenience Sampling

Sampling in which elements are selected on the basis of convenience

Quota Sampling

A nonprobability sampling method in which elements are selected to ensure that the sample represents certain characteristics in proportion to their prevalence in the population

Purposive Sampling

A nonprobability sampling method in which elements are selected for a purpose, usually because of their unique position

Snowball Sampling

A method of sampling in which sample elements are selected as successive informants or interviewees identify them

Cross-sectional Research Design

A study in which data are collected at only one point in time

Longitudinal Research Design

A study in which data are collected at multiple points in time

Panel Research Design

A study in which data are collected from the same people over time

Trend Research Design

Repeated cross-section of the same population over time

Cohort Research Design

Trend or panel design

Observing

Not participating in selective observation or inaccurate observation

Selective Observation

Choosing to look only at things that are in line with our preferences or beliefs

Inaccurate Observation

An observation based on faulty perceptions of empirical reality

Generalizing

Avoiding overgeneralization when we unjustifiably conclude that what is true for some cases is true for all cases

Overgeneralization

When we unjustifiably conclude that what is true for some cases is true for all cases; Assuming true for all/larger group

Reasoning

Steering clear or illogical reasoning

Illogical Reasoning

When we prematurely jump to conclusions or argue based on invalid assumptions

Reevaluating

Abstaining from resistance to change perhaps related to ego-based commitments, excessive devotion to tradition, and uncritical agreement with authority

Resistance to change

The reluctance to change our ideas in response to new information

Scientific Approach

Investigating phenomena in the world by testing ideas about them with observations—empirical data—of those phenomena

Science

• Uses logical, systematic, documented methods

• Investigates nature and natural processes

• Is the knowledge produced by these investigations

• Is an ongoing, cumulative process

___ is the central concern of scientific research

Valid knowledge

Generalizability

Are results applicable to the broader population?

Generalizability of a study

The extent to which it can inform us about persons, places, or events that were not directly studied

Population

The entire set of individuals or other entities to which study findings are to be generalized

Individuals vs. Groups of Individuals

Don’t want to generalize from higher units to lower ones and vice versa

Generalizability can refer to

The ability to generalize from a subset of a population (a sample) to the entire population

Cross-population generalizability (External Validity)

Refers to the ability to apply findings about one population to other populations

Causal (Internal) Validity

Refers to the truthfulness of an assertion that A causes B

Authenticity

Involves reflecting fairly the various perspectives on participants in a setting

The preference for the goal of authenticity

Reflects a concern with subjective meanings

Social research questions should

• Have a focus on a substantive area of importance

• Be scientifically relevant and grounded in the social science literature

Major objective of social science research

Building social theory

Theory

A logically interrelated set of propositions that help us make sense of many interrelated phenomena and predict behavior or attitudes that are likely to occur under certain conditions

Research based on deductive reasoning proceeds from:

• General ideas

• Deduces specific expectations from these ideas

• Tests the ideas with empirical data

Inductive research beings with

Data but ends with theory

Deductive research begins

At the point of theory

Descriptive research begins with

Data and ends with empirical generalizations

Longitudinal designs vary in

• Whether the same people are measured at different times

• How the population of interest is defined

• How frequently follow-up measurements are taken

Repeated cross-section design (Trend Study)

A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected at two or more points in time from different samples of the same population

When is a repeated cross-sectional design (trend study) appropriate?

When the goal is to determine whether a population has changed over time

Fixed-sample panel design (Panel Study)

A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected from the same individuals—the panel—at two or more points in time

Why is a fixed-sample panel design (panel study) difficult to carry out?

Their expense as well as subject attrition and fatigue

Event-based design (Cohort Study)

A type of longitudinal study in which the follow-up samples (at one or more times) are selected from the same cohort

Cohort

People who all have experienced a similar event or a common starting point

An event-based design can be

A type of repeated cross-sectional design or a type of panel design

In most sociological and psychological studies, the units of analysis are

Individuals

In some studies, the units of analysis may instead be

Groups of some sort, such as families, schools, work organizations, towns, states, or countries

Invalid conclusions may occur when:

• Relationships between variables measured at the group level are assumed to apply at the individual level (the ecological fallacy)

• Relationships between variables measured at the level of individuals are assumed to apply at the group level (the reductionist fallacy)

The Ecological Fallacy

Invalid conclusions may occur when relationships between variables measured at the group level are assumed to apply at the individual level

The Reductionist Fallacy

Invalid conclusions may occur when relationships between variables measured at the level of individuals are assumed to apply at the group level

Why is conceptualization important?

Because we cannot be certain that all readers will share a particular definition or that the current meaning of the concept is the same as it was when previous research was published