AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition

Bottom-up processing

The process of sensory input starting at the entry level and building up.

Top-down processing

The process of perception driven by cognition, using prior knowledge.

Perceptual set

A predisposition to perceive things a certain way.

Gestalt psychology

A theory emphasizing that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Closure

The tendency to fill in gaps in visual information.

Figure and ground

The organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings.

Proximity

Objects that are close together are perceived as a group.

Similarity

Objects that are similar are perceived as a group.

Attention

Focusing awareness on a specific stimulus.

Selective attention

the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

Cocktail party effect

The ability toattendto themention one's name orspecifictopicsinloudor distracting environments.

Inattentional blindness

Failure to notice a visible stimulus because attention is elsewhere.

Change blindness

Failure to notice changes in the environment due to inattention.

Binocular depth cures

Depth cues that depend on the use of both eyes.

Retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

Convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

Monocular depth cues

Depth cues available to either eye alone.

Relative clarity

Objects that appear clearer are perceived as closer.

Relative size

Objects that appear smaller are perceived as farther away.

Texture gradient

A gradual change from coarse to fine texture signals increasing distance.

Linear perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge with distance.

Interposition

If one object partially blocks another, it is perceived as closer.

Perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

Apparent movement

Perception of movement in a stationary object.

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

A typical example of a concept.

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adjusting schemas to fit new information.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

Representativeness heuristic

Judging the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype.

Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

Mental set

A tendency to approach problems in a particular way.

Priming

The activation of certain associations in memory.

Framing

The way an issue is posed can affect decisions and judgments.

Gambler's fallacy

Belief that past random events affect the probability of future ones.

Sunk-cost fallacy

Continuing an endeavor because of previously invested resources.

Executive functions

higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent thinking

Thinking that generates multiple possible solutions.

Convergent thinking

Thinking that narrows options to find a single best solution.

Functional fixedness

Inability to see new uses for familiar objects.

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know.

Episodic memory

Memory of personal experiences and events.

Semantic memory

Memory of general knowledge and facts.

Implicit memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously.

Procedural memory

Memory of skills and how to perform them.

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a planned action in the future.

Long-term potentiation

The long-lasting strengthening of synapses between neurons.

Working memory model

A model describing different components of working memory.

Primary memory system (working memory)

The memory system involved in the temporary storage and management of information necessary for cognitive tasks, often associated with short-term memory.

Central executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and processing.

Phonological loop

The part of working memory that deals with verbal information.

Visuospatial sketchpad

The part of working memory that deals with visual and spatial information.

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory.

Multi-store model

A model of memory with three stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term.

Sensory memory

The brief storage of sensory information.

Iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli.

Echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.

Short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Long term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory.

Levels of processing model

A model suggesting deeper processing leads to better retention.

Shallow encoding

Encoding based on the structure or appearance of words.

Deep encoding

Encoding based on the meaning of words.

Structural encoding

Encoding based on the structure or appearance of words.

Phonemic encoding

Encoding based on the sound of words.

Semantic encoding

Encoding based on the meaning of words.

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Method of loci

A mnemonic technique involving associating items with specific locations.

Chunking

Organizing information into manageable units.

Categories (as they pertain to grouping)

Grouping information into categories to aid memory.

Hierarchies (as they pertain to grouping)

Organizing information into levels of importance.

Spacing effect

The tendency to retain information more effectively when practice is spread out.

Massed practice

Cramming information in a short period.

Distributed practice

Spacing out study sessions over time.

Serial position effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list best.

Primacy effect

The tendency to recall the first items in a list better.

Recency effect

The tendency to recall the last items in a list better.

Short-term memory

The active maintenance of information in short-term storage.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge.

Memory retention

The ability to retain information over time.

Autobiographical memory

A memory system for storing information about one's life events.

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of memory for events before a trauma.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories after a trauma.

Alzheimer's disease

A progressive disease that destroys memory and other mental functions.

Infantile amnesia

The inability to recall memories from early childhood.

Recall

Retrieving information learned earlier.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information.

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that help retrieve information from long-term memory.

Context-dependent memory

Memory that is improved when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences consistent with one's current mood.

State-dependent memory

Memory that is aided or impeded by a person's internal state.

Testing effect

The enhanced memory after retrieving information.