COMP GOPO Unit 4: Political Culture and Participation

What is civil society? How does the type of regime impact civil society? What is the impact of civil society in the course countries?

Voluntary organizations v. top-down participation, NGOs, agents of democratization

Civil Society

A range of voluntary organizations that are autonomous (ability to self-govern or control its own affairs) from the state

Voluntary Organizations

formal organizations that draw together people who give time, talent, or treasure to support mutual interests, meet important human needs, or achieve a not-for-profit goal

Top-Down participation

These organizations are just tools of the state; they relay messages from the state

NGOs

Nongovernmental organization (private independent organizations that deliver aid person to person and empower people to exercise their freedoms).

Agents of democratization

NGOs will function as agents of democratization through their increasing presence and ability to transform society

What is the definition of political culture? How does history, geography, and religious traditions influence political culture? How is political culture transmitted?

Consensual v. conflictual, social and economic equality, post-materialism, political socialization, agents of socialization

consensual vs conflictual

conflictual political culture is one in which different groups (or subcultures) clash with opposing beliefs and values; a consensual political culture experiences less conflict

Social and economic equality

equality of opportunity

Post-materialism

the transformation of individual values from materialist, physical, and economic to new individual values of autonomy and self-expression.

Political socialization

the lifelong process of acquiring one's beliefs, values, and orientations toward the political system

Political culture

Basic values and assumptions that people have toward authority, the political system, and other overarching themes in political life.

Agents of Socialization

Those agents, such as the family and the media, that have a significant impact on citizens' political socialization.
-Family: powerful agent of socialization since they spend the most time wit kids and kids greatly trust their parents; kids tend to lean democratic/republican due to parents, basic American values like equality and individualism are founded in family interaction
-School: affect children's basic political beliefs; inform kids about American history, obtain sense of social equality since most kids go to public schools and get a standard curriculum
-Mass media: affects people's perceptions of the world and politicians by the amount of coverage they get or the opinions people have on them
-Peers: tend to reinforce what a person already believes because people trust the opinions of friends/associates; most people don't want to think too different from their peers; most people don't want to express opposing opinions; peers making prevailing opinions appear to be more firmly and widely held than they really are
-Political institutions and leaders: citizens look to political leaders and institutions (especially the President and political parties) to help make opinions (e.g. after George Bush said Al Qaeda and Taliban were enemies, 9/10 of Americans agreed)
-Churches: religion is an essential role in shaping Americans' political and social beliefs; most people say religion answers many problems society faces today; church and religion is a more powerful force in the US than in most other Western countries; churches still play a significant role in some political attitudes (e.g. society's obligations to children, the poor, and the unborn

UK development of political culture

Geography: A variety of geographical features have impacted the development of political culture in the UK, here are a few examples: insularity or separation from the continent of Europe. Small Size-limited resources and geography influenced the UK to become an imperial power; no geographical barriers-easy communication and transportation across the UK

Religion: Prior to the parliamentary system. the monarchy was selected by divine right.

History: Noblesse oblige or the duty of the upper classes to take responsibility for the welfare of the lower class. Multi-nationalism England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland have all been individual nations in the past, but are united under one government today. Evolution over Revolution- the UK slowly transitioned over time from a monarchy into a parliamentary system through tradition and policy change rather than a written Constitution.

Influence on government/individuals/policymaking examples: Geography has influenced policy making in many ways, the EU is a perfect example. Even prior to Brexit the UK refused to use the Euro, but rather kept the pound. History of Noblesse obligeHas created a willingness for a welfare state including National Health Services. This also impacted with geography, the UK's desire for imperialism.

Mexico development of Political Culture

Geography: Numerous impacts/influence. A few examples include:geographical barriers-numerous mountains and desserts separating regions.urban population-Mexico has urbanized rapidly and today about ¾ of all Mexicans live in urban centers.

Religion: Until the 1920s the Catholic Church actively participated in politics. Today the political influence of the church has severely declined, however, most citizens are devout Catholics and this greatly influences political values and beliefs

History: Patron-clientelism can be defined as a system of you scratch my back and I scratch yours between political elites and the constituents. An example would be a region supporting a candidate and voting for that candidate and then the candidate providing jobs, government resources, etc. for that region. Common History-Strong sense of national identification based on a common history, as well as religion, and language. Economic Dependency- A history of being dependent on Spain when a colonial holding, as well as being a Neighbor to the U.S.

Influence on government/individuals/policymaking examples: Geography because of the numerous mountains and desserts separating regions and therefore regionalism is a major characteristic of the political system. Religion greatly influences political values and beliefs. For instance in Mexico there are only 2 states that allow for abortion, which is strictly forbidden by the Catholic Church, and the other states. This example also illustrates regionalism, as the Federal government allows the states to decide this issue.Economic Dependency-PEMEX is a government-controlled oil company so the government is viewed as being active in the economy or controlling the economy.

Nigeria development of political culture

Geography: Geographical barriers a patchwork of a variety of geographies including plateaus and desserts has created distinctive regions.

Religion: Religious History is one of conflict between Christianity and Islam and this has greatly influenced political culture.

History: Patron-clientelism can be defined as a system of you scratch my back and I scratch yours between political elites and the constituents. An example would be a region supporting a candidate and voting for that candidate and then the candidate providing jobs, government resources, etc. for that region. Colonialism-Very greatly influenced by British colonialism. One example would be the state trying to control almost all aspects of life much like the British or subsequent military dictatorships in Nigeria.

Influence on government/individuals/policymaking examples: Examples of Religious influence on political culture include the fact that most Muslims generally support Sharia, or religious law as a valid part of political authority, but Christian populations disagree with this. Geographically we see regionalism in politics and this is also why there has been a great deal of patron-clientelism in regions. We can also see the influence of geography on religion, as most Northern states include Sharia law, not Southern states. State control can be seen in a very unique way in that when the citizens of Nigeria feel democracy is not working correctly, the citizens have often urged a military coup d' etat to re-correct the situation this is a political culture developed as a direct result of the history of state control.

Russia development of political culture

Geography: Geography setting has been an influence on political culture in several ways: Russia is the largest country in the world and encompasses many ethnicity and climates. Russia is geographically vulnerable to invasion.

Religion: Eastern orthodoxy was linked to the state early in Russia's history. When Russia became the Soviet Union the Communist Party forbade its citizens from practicing religion

History: History of the Communist RegimeThe Communist regime instilled in the people an idea of appreciation for equality and similar living standards.NationalityCultural heterogeneity has always been a characteristic of Russian political culture, but Russians tend to categorize others based on their nationality and this can lead to descrimination and stereotypes.SkepticismThe Russian people have a healthy skepticism and disdain for leaders.

Influence on government/individuals/policymaking examples: example of Religious influence on political culture is that there was no separation of church and state in political culture prior to the Soviet Union and Communist control.Geographical example of influence on political culture would be the development that state is more important than the individual that was a result of the state protecting individuals from invasion.Communist regime's focus on equality has influenced political culture in modern Russia in that economic or capitalist development is not a focus of political culture.

China development of political culture

Geography: Geography has been extremely influential in keeping China isolated for centuries.The geography has limited population growth in the Western portion of the country. Geographic boundaries have created a split between north and south in China.

Religion: Confucian ideas. Confucianism believes in hierarchy and respect for authority. Also promotes respect for elders.

History: Patron-clientelism can be defined as a system of you scratch my back and I scratch yours between political elites and the constituents. Looks a bit different in China than in Mexico for instance. In China it is more about within the party and the relationships with the leaders of the past. In other words trying to attract the supports of leaders who are no longer alive or in power. Historical ErasChina has a long and rich history from the time of the Dynastys to Maoism with each influencing political culture.nationalism identity of Han Chinese- the predominant ehnic group in China goes back to ancient times. There is a great pride in Chinese culture and accomplishments. Western InfluenceHas both been a point of resistance and acceptance in China.

Influence on government/individuals/policymaking examples: Geography has impacted political culture in many ways but perhaps most importantly is the fact that geography and vast resources mean China is not economically or politically dependent on other nations, it can sustain itself from within.Historical eras have greatly influenced political culture. The first would be lack of protections polticially for those who are not Han Chinese, such as those of Tibetan ethnicity.The second is much like Russia the idea of collectivism from the time of Mao. Collectivism values the community over the individual and this has greatly influenced Chinese political culture.

Iran development of political culture

Geography: Geography is comprised of vast desert which has unevenly distributed the population of Iran, with most living in northwestern cities.

Religion: Religion and politics are one and the same throughout Iran's history, no separation of church and state.Shiism and Sharia90% of all Iranians identify themselves as Shiite today.

History: History of Authoritarianism. Whether under the Shahs or the Supreme Leader.Lack of European colonization. Unlike countries of Asia, Africa, and South America, Iran was never officially colonized by Europeans.NationalismIran has a history of nationalism and Iranian's have a strong sense of nationalism over individualism.

Influence on government/individuals/policymaking examples: Religion is an extremely important part of political culture as Iran is a theocracy and the laws of the regime must not violate Sharia law.Authoritarianism has influenced political culture in that Iran's leaders claimed to be all powerful, but people soon realized that they had little control over their daily lives and that local officials were far more important to their every day political life

What are the various political ideologies? How does the political ideology in the country impact political culture?

Individualism, neoliberalism, communism, socialism, facism, populism

Individualism

Emphasizes the value of the individual; individual freedom takes precedence over government restrictions. An individualist supports...
-Limited government: gov't power sohuld not grow beyond its granted powers
-Natural Rights; Freedom of Religion...
-Negatives: downfall of communalism, materialism, general selfishness

Neoliberalism

The free market will cure economic issues and protect private property. A neolib supports...
-Economic liberalizations to remove government regulations and barriers that restrict the free market
-Privatization of public industry
-Negatives: may result in deregulation that results in bad business behavior, removal of welfare state protections, growing inequality of wealth, but is closely tied to lowering taxes

Communism

Societies can achieve full social equality by eliminating private property. Supports...
-Command economy: all land, businesses, farms, etc. owned by the "public" (aka the gov't)
-Nationalization: the government assumes control of all private businesses
-Collective farming: eliminates individual farms in favor of communal production
-Negatives: economic stagnation, no competition, no incentives

Socialism

Increase social equality by government intervention to reduce income disparities; less rigid than Communism. Supports...
-Welfare state: taxpayer-funded programs to protect and promote the economic and social well-being of citizens
-Nationalization: select private businesses are taken over by the government=Mixed Economy
-Negatives: closely tied to progressive taxation; expensive

Facism

Extreme nationalism fuels a belief that the state is more important than the individual. The state itself is sovereign (not the people). Supports...
-Tyranny of the Majority: the ethnic majority (who controls the government) oppresses minorities
-De facto Nationalization: private businesses serve the state
-Negatives: state supreme over people=state can do whatever to "protect" itself=HARD POWER

Populism

The interests and rights of the common people are more important than the interests of the "corrupt elite"
-Policies depend: is the person or group more socialist? Individualist?
-Characterized by "us versus them" language, big rallies
-Negatives: taps into those who are dissatisfied, can be dangerous to democracy b/c it is so binary (us v them)-- can lead to favoritism--the "will of the majority" translates into the majority group

Why is political ideology important?

The dominant political ideology of a government shapes its economic and social public policy decisions. It also impacts how the government deals with conflict
-If the ideology of the government matches with the people=a stable regime

What is political participation? What are the different types of political participation? How does the government regulate participation?

Formal vs. informal, referenda, media, impact of rule of law vs. rule by law

Political Participation

The degree to which citizens' activities impact politics. Activities of citizens that attempt to influence the structure of government, the selection of government officials or the policies of government

Formal vs. informal political participation

-Conventional (formal) participation: voting, contracting public officials, donations, joining a group/association
-Unconventional (or informal) participation: protesting, civil disobedience, boycotts (may be violent or non-violent)

Referenda

Allow citizens to vote directly on policy questions and are used to...
-a means to promote democratic policy making
-allow a chief executive to bypass the legislature
-to oblige citizens to make difficult and potentially unpopular decisions on public policy issues

Why would a democratic country hold a referendum? Referendums are much more democratic (everyone votes instead of sending a representative to speak on their behalf)

Why would an authoritarian country hold a referendum? Authoritarian regimes could rig referendums so their goals could be achieved and their citizens wouldn't question it (the government would just say that the people voted for it)

Media and political participation

The use of digital media for mobilization of political party
-Ex) Bloomberg is going to go to each County and spread Ads for his campaign with his abundant amount of money.
-Ex) Arab Spring helped protesters gain support even with oppressive forms of government (social media had no restrictions).
-Ex) Obama's election was impacted by THE EMERGENCE OF SOCIAL MEDIA
-Ex) Trump's mobilization and expression of political ideals on TWITTER.
-Ex) Impact of Blog Usage and Viewing on Political Status.
Part of the Media MACHINE

Rule of Law vs. Rule by Law and political participation

Rule of law=greater freedoms for citizens to participate politically

Rule by law=limited freedoms for citizens to participate politically (participation in politics is controlled by the government [e.g. parties are controlled by the country in authoritarian regimes like China and Russia])

How does the type of regime impact political participation?

Authoritarian vs. democratic and tolerance of protests, media and criticms

How do authoritarian and democratic regimes differ in tolerating protests, media, and criticism?

Authoritarian regimes=seeks to control media so that citizens obey it and gain a false pro-government sense; they ignore protests unless it directly impacts the government; tries to silence criticism

Democratic regimes=seeks to not control the media (so that people don't have propaganda beliefs) and tolerate protests and criticism (overall grants citizens a greater ability to voice their opinions)

What are civil rights and civil liberties? How are they protected or limited by the course countries?

Examples: Great Firewall of China, surveillance state, Iranian Courts, Russia mass media, intranet

Civil Rights and Civil Liberties

Civil liberties are the protections from the abuse of government power. Civil rights are the protections from discrimination based on gender, race, or religion.

How does each course country protect civil rights and civil liberties?

The difference is that, in the more authoritarian regimes (China, Russia, and Iran), political beliefs are grounded in rule by law, in which the state uses the law to reinforce the authority of the state.

In more democratic regimes, political beliefs are grounded in rule of law, in which the state is limited to the same rules as its citizens and citizens have more direct input into policy-making.

In general, democratic regimes tolerate a high degree of media freedom to encourage citizen control of the political agenda and check political power and corruption. This is evidenced by our three most democratic course countries (UK, Nigeria, and Mexico) that all have Freedom of Information Acts that create greater transparency and access on the part of the media and citizens to information that previously only government officials possessed. However, Nigeria and Mexico often see government officials refuse to comply with the laws, as there are few ramifications because these two nations have only recently become more democratic.

In regards to media and social media, our democratic course countries (Mexico, Nigeria, and the UK) have a mix between government-owned and privately-owned media. There are some restrictions, but there is the ability to criticize the government via both forms of media.

Authoritarian regimes (China, Iran, Russia) do not have any guarantees of information about governmental policy or performance which helps to prevent criticism. Remember that authoritarian regimes monitor and restrict citizens’ media access to a greater degree to maintain political control

China limits on civil rights and civil liberties

China uses the great firewall to limit criticism on social media. For example, you cannot find any information on the events of the Tienanmen Square events of 1989. China also monitors individual use of social media.

Iran limits on civil rights and civil liberties

The Iranian courts have revoked media licenses if the content shared by the media outlet is deemed to be anti-religious. During a recent 2019-20 statewide protest, Iran shut down social media and the internet for 6 days.

Russia limits on civil rights and civil liberties

The Russian media has been nationalized, meaning the government owns it and controls what is shared. The number of journalists who have mysteriously died in Russia is quite high.
-In 2020 Russia tested internal internet known as RuNet (Internet in Russian Federation territory)

What are political and social cleavages? What social cleavages impact each course country?

Major cleavages: region, culture, ethnicity, class

Political and social cleavages

Social cleavages: internal divisions in society based on differences in class, ethnicity/race, religion and/or region

Political cleavages: happens when social cleavages become politicized and impact political culture, behavior and values

4 common examples of social cleavages

Ethnicity: based on cultural identity and tend to be more decisive; basis for many civil wars and other violent conflict

Religion: often closely connected with ethnicity; can also occur in more homogenous societies

Region: often linked to varying degrees of economic development within a state

Social class: socioeconomic class, e.g. lower, middle, upper class, often linked to region

What social cleavages impact each course country?

UK: ethnicity, region

Mexico: region, ethnicity, social class

Nigeria: ethnicity, region, religion

Russia: ethnicity, region and religion

China: ethnicity, region and, religion

Iran: ethnicity, religion, region

What challenges resulted from social cleavages? How has each government responded to social cleavages? How did each response impact legitimacy?

China: Uighurs

Iran: Shi'a

Mexico: indigenous, mestizos

Nigeria: Hausa/Ibo/Yoruba

UK: Scotts, Brexit

UK and social cleavages

Social Cleavage and Example: In the United Kingdom, ethnic and regional differences between nations such as the Scottish, English, Welsh, and Irish; religious differences between Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland; and racial tensions between whites and non-European minorities whose heritage is related to the United Kingdom's colonial history.

Government Responses: In the modern era the UK has begun to devolve power to help with ethnic and regional differences in Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.

Social Cleavage Impacts on course countries: Separatist movements have emerged in the United Kingdom as a result of the social cleavages. Other groups demanding autonomy, but not independence, have emerged in the United Kingdom.

Mexico and social cleavages

Social Cleavage and Example: In Mexico, ethnic divisions between the Amerindian (indigenous) population and whites and mestizos, and regional divisions between the north and the south.

Government Responses: As a result of the Zapatas uprisings of 1994 in Chiapas the Mexican government granted indigenous people the right of self-determination with the incorporation of those rights into the Constitution. Mexico has tried poverty reduction policies to help the economically depressed southern regions of the country.

Social Cleavage Impacts on course countries: Other groups demanding autonomy, but not independence, have emerged in Mexico.

Nigeria and social cleavages

Social Cleavage and Example: In Nigeria, ethnic divisions among more than 250 ethnic groups (including Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo), and religious and regional cleavages between the north (predominantly Muslim) and the south (where Christians and animists are concentrated).

Government Responses: WIth the 1999 Constitution Federalism was installed into the government to create a strong central government that distributes power to the states and allows Sharia law in the North.The government has also seized territory and used the military against Islamic separatist groups like Boko Haram.

Social Cleavage Impacts on course countries: Separatist movements have emerged in Nigeria as a result of the social cleavages. Ethnicity has played a more significant role in Nigeria than in Mexico because of different colonial histories and a greater diversity and politicization of ethnic/religious identities in Nigeria.

Russia and social cleavages

Social Cleavage and Example: In Russia, cleavages between ethnic Russians, who are more than 80 percent of the population and tend to be Russian Orthodox, and minority, non-Russian populations (including the Chechens in the Caucasus

Government Responses: Russia has fought two wars in Chechnya in the 1990s to prevent separatists from leaving.Putin appointed leadership to rule with brute repression to suppress the separatist movement in recent years.

Social Cleavage Impacts on course countries: Separatist movements have emerged in Russia as a result of the social cleavages.

China and social cleavages

Social Cleavage and Example: In China, ethnic and regional divisions between the majority Han ethnic group and at least 55 recognized ethnic minorities, such as the Uighurs in the northwest and the Tibetans in the southwest, and between areas that have developed at different rates.

Government Responses: Use of re-education camps in the Xinjang province for political socialization. Hundreds of thousands Muslim Uighurs are detained and given vocational training. Indoctrination to learn the Chinese language and obey the laws to try and prevent separatists and terrorism.

Social Cleavage Impacts on course countries: Separatist movements have emerged in China as a result of the social cleavages.

Iran and social cleavages

Social Cleavage and Example: In Iran, religious divisions between the Shi'a Muslim majority and members of other religions, such as Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism, have resulted in a threatening atmosphere despite official recognition; within practitioners of Islam, there are divisions between the Shi'a majority and those who are Sunni. There are also ethnic cleavages between the majority Persians and several ethnic minorities, including Azerbaijanis and Kurds.

Government Responses: The state has officially recognized minority religions, but groups like the Baha'i faith have been executed, imprisoned, tortured, schools closed, and community property taken by the state. The Constitution does not mention Sunnis and their rights are unclear.There have been on going clashes between the Kurds and the Iranian military.

Social Cleavage Impacts on course countries: Separatist movements have emerged in Iran as a result of the social cleavages.