World History 1010 Morris Bian Exam 4 Auburn

Siddhartha (1922) by Hermann Hesse

Be thoroughly familiar with the who, what, when, where, & why of Siddhartha’s life. Who is he? What does he do? What are the basic facts of his life? What are his major activities? When & where do these activities take place? How & why does he make the choices he does? What are the main themes of the book?

III. inventing primary political tradition: administrative centralization under the Qin and Han Dynasties, 211 BC-220 CE

Defining primary traditions of Chinese civilization

• Primary political tradition: administrative centralization.

• Primary intellectual, ideological, and religious tradition: dominance of Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism

China’s primary political tradition took shape during the Qin & Han dynasties, 211 BC- 220 CE

The Warring States Period, 500-221 BC

Warring States during the life of Confucius, ca 500 BC

Location of Qin among the Warring States

The Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) set in motion the trend toward administrative centralization by creating the First Bureaucratic Empire in Chinese history.

Shihuangdi (the 1st Emperor)

Shihuangdi brought about administrative centralization by creating a system of commanderies & counties.

One demonstration of the successful outcome and high degree of administrative centralization is an underground terracotta army “stationed” in Xian

Xian today: old city wall and moat

Xian: tradition vs. modernity

Underground terracotta army

headless terracotta soldiers

still defiant after two millennia

the “three flower” general

The existence of the terracotta army demonstrates the successful outcome & the high degree of administrative centralization during the Qin Dynasty

Administrative centralization continued under the Han Dynasty, 206 BC-220 CE

Han Wudi (r. 141-87 BC)

Han Wudi’s TWO major achievements

• administrative centralization: building centralized administrative bureaucracy

• imperial expansion: defeating Xiongnu confederation.

The recently created National Supervision Commission in China represents expansion of functions similar to those performed by the Minister of Censor under the Han

Imperial expansion under Han Wudi

• invading Vietnam & Korea and bringing them under the Orbit of Chinese Society

• defeating and expelling the Xiongnu confederation

Steppe: a vast semiarid grass-covered plain found in Central Asia, Southeast Europe, & Siberia.

Xiongnu Territory to the North of Han China, Circa 0

The Xiongnu confederation frequently mounted raids into Chinese villages and trading areas

The Xiongnu confederation was a source of constant concern to the Han emperors

Xiongnu retreat from Han territories

VI. Inventing Primary Ideological & Religious Tradition: Confucianization of Han state & society, 206 BC - 220 CE

Ideological/religious centralization: Qin elevation of legalism to the status of state ideology/religion

Confucianism replaced Legalism as the state Ideology/Religion under the Han Dynasty

Defining Confucianization: The term Confucianization refers to process by which Confucianism became officially recognized imperial ideology/religion as well as the core curriculum of education.

Defining The Five Classics: Five ancient Chinese books associated with Confucius. They were compiled [put together] during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 CE) and invoked as authorities on Chinese society, government, literature, & religion. They were taught from 136 BC to 1905 CE

The classics as Core Curriculum: In 136 BC, Han Wudi set up Five Professors of the Five Classics at the imperial court and shortly afterwards assigned fifty [50] students to study with them, thus creating a de facto imperial academy

The confucianization of the Han Empire was strikingly similar to the Christianization of the Roman Empire

What makes Confucianism a Secular Religion?

• defining secular religion: it refers to ideas, theories, or philosophies which involve no spiritual component, yet possess qualities similar to those of a religion.

• comparing confuciamism with christianity:

  • founder

  • second founder

  • disciples

  • scriptures/classics

  • core curriculum

  • belief system

  • god/heaven

  • confucianization/christianization

Lecture three. introducing secondary tradition: the spread of buddhism in China, 64-581 CE

I. Distinguishing Characteristics of Ancient India

Defining Characteristics of Ancient India

• the lack of centralized empires & the dominance by regional kingdoms

• the development of a well-defined but inflexible social structure known as caste system

II. Siddhartha Gautama & the rise of buddhism in Ancient India

Before the rise of Buddhism, the existing religious tradition had revolved around ritual sacrifices offered by Brahmin priests.

Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BC) was one of the ethical & moral thinkers who lived in Ancient India

Siddhartha lived in what is today Nepal

Siddhartha: “One Whose Aim Is Accomplished”

Defining Ascetic: a person who renounces material comforts and leads a life of austere self-discipline, especially as an act of religious devotion.

Lumbini Garden- Siddhartha’s birthplace

Lotus pond at Tsinghua University, Beijing

Dr. Bian with a scholar at Tsinghua University’s Lotus Pond, Beijing, 07/04/2010

Great Renunciation: to give up princely life & become a wondering Ascetic. This is what Siddhartha did

• The queen had a dream of a white elephant coming to her and she became pregnant

• The queen gave birth to Siddhartha at Lumbini Garden

• Siddhartha was tenderly pampered by his parents

• Siddhartha attended ploughing festival with his father

• Siddhartha realized the True Cycle of Life: Birth, Old Age, Illness, and Death

• Siddhartha took a last look at his wife and their infant son

• Siddhartha left the palace and started a homeless life

• Cutting off his hair just before his Great Renunciation

“holy men” from India & Nepal

Siddhartha after six years of continuous practice of all forms of severe austerity

Siddhartha continued his spiritual journey after regaining physical strength

Siddhartha attained enlightenment under a Pipal tree

Mahabodhi temple & its interior. Pipal tree next to Mahabodhi temple

Siddhartha realized the Four Noble Truths

• Life is suffering

• suffering is caused by desire

• The way to end suffering is to end desire

• The way to end desire is to avoid two extremes: (1) the extreme of a life of vulgar materialism & (2) the extreme of a life of self-torture & self-mortification

Men needed to follow the so-called “middle path,” which called for right view, right thought, right endeavor, etc

Siddhartha attained Enlightenment: the term Enlightenment refers to a blessed state in which the individual transcends desire & suffering and attains Nirvana, which is the ultimate goal/condition.

_{^{The term enlightenment refers to a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries, which was marked by a rejection of traditional cultural and religious ideas and an emphasis on reason and rational analysis. But this is not the kind of enlightenment Siddhartha attained.}}

The end objective was to enter Nirvana: The term Nirvana refers to the ultimate goal or condition, beyond existence & without form or definition. It is a blissful spiritual condition where the heart extinguishes passion, hatred, and delusion. It is the highest spiritual plane a person can attain.

III. Evolution of Indian Buddhism after the death of Buddha

Defining Theravada: Theravada refers to the traditional form of Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism was closer to the teachings of the historical Buddha. The followers of Theravada Buddhism renounced the material world & emphasized the importance of monastic life & limited routes to salvation.

Defining Mahayana: In contrast to Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism emphasized the importance of faith and the universal opportunity for salvation. Within Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha himself was made a supernatural god. There were also innumerable other deities called Bodhisattvas.

The Bodhisattvas were enlightened beings destined to attain Nirvana but decided out of compassion to delay the final act to help others achieve salvation.

The Silk Road refers to a network of interlinking trade routes across the Eurasian landmass that connected Asia with the European world.

Nearly 70 countries & international organizations have signed up for mega infrastructure project known as One Belt (New Silk Road) One Road (New Maritime Silk Road)

Dominance of Theravada Buddhism in southeast asian countries such as Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos

Mahayana Buddhism in East Asia

Despite their differences, both Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism spread to other parts of Asia

IV. Translation of Buddhist Scripture 1-3 centuries CE V. Mass conversion to Buddhism, 4-6 centuries CE

Two Phases in the Introduction of Buddhism

• Phase I: translation & absorbing Buddhist scriptures, 1-3 centuries CE

• Phase II: mass conversion to Buddhism, 4-6 centuries CE

IV. Translation of Buddhist Scripture 1-3 centuries CE

Dream of Emperor Ming (64 CE)

White horses carried Buddhist scriptures to capital city Luoyang under the Han dynasty

white horse monastery

Although there are disputes about the story’s reliability, the Dream of Emperor Ming (64 CE) was the first known incident regarding the introduction of Buddhism in China recorded in historical documents.

V. Mass conversion to Buddhism, 4-6 centuries CE

Invasion o Han capital Luoyang, 316 CE

Buddhism became China’s dominant religion during this period of political fragmentation, 220-581 CE

In northern China, alien rulers accepted Buddhism for the same reason that the Franks converted to Christianity after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire: they hoped to attract the allegiance of the Buddhist population and legitimize their rule.

Buddhism’s strong appeal to native Chinese was reflected in the erratic behavior of Emperor Liang Wudi.

Liang Wudi acquired titles that suggest the fusion of both Confucian & Buddhist political sanctions: Emperor Bodhisattva; Bodhisattva Son of Heaven

A monastery built under Liang Wudi

Liang Wudi’s case demonstrates the strong appeal of Buddhism to native Chinese rulers.

A 5th century bronze statue of Buddha

Fresco from Kizil Cave

Dunhuang caves

Buddhism became Sinicized (to make Chinese in character or to change by Chinese influence) as it spread to China along the Silk Road.

Siddhartha in his Emaciated state

Sinicization of Buddhist Sculpture

sculptures from yungang cave

Lecture Four. Restoring China’s primary political tradition: administrative centralization during the Sui & Tang dynasties, 581-906 CE

I. Major achievements of the Sui Dynasty, 581-618

By the end of the six century, the Sui (581-617) had brought about China’s reunification as well as administrative re-centralization

The Sui dynasty brought about the reunification of china & built a grand canal in Hangzhou

The grand canal & irrigation in the south

The G20 summit held in Hangzhou in 2016

organizing an international conference in collaboration with Zhejiang University (2012)

IV. Evolution of State Policy toward Buddhism under the Tang Dynasty

During the early Tang Dynasty (618-906), the imperial court continued to patronize Buddhist establishments & build Buddhist temples.

At the same time, Sinicization continued, as Buddhism became more Chinese in character & continued to be modified by Chinese influence

We can see evidence of continued Sinicization in changes of Buddhist paintings & sculptures

Buddhist sculpture dating from the Northern Wei dynasty, 386-534

Buddhist sculpture shortly before China’s reunification under the Sui dynasty

Buddhist sculptures under the Tang dynasty, 618-906

Buddhist sculpture at Longmen Caves dating from the Tang dynasty, 618-906

Leshan Giant Buddha, 713-803

The transformation of the Buddha (statue) into a fat Buddha (statue) occurred under the TANG dynasty!

Why did state policy toward Buddhism change radically during the late Tang dynasty?

• reason #1: as the Tang dynasty began to decline, the large land holdings of Buddhist monasteries were seen as a fiscal threat to the state, for they removed land & people from tax registers.

• reason #2: during the late Tang dynasty, the once discredited Confucianism began to experience revival, and Confucian scholars started to attack Buddhism as a foreign religion

One prominent Confucian scholar wrote: “We have our own society, our own civilization, our own government, and our own customs and habits. These all conform to our principles and everything with us is rational and logical. Thanks to this we live in peace… what need have we then of barbarian religions?”

Persecution of Buddhism, 841-845

• destruction of 44,600 monasteries & temples

• return of 260,000 monks & nuns as well as 150,000 to lay life & tax registers

• significance: the persecution provided a crippling blow to Buddhism. more importantly, it paved the way for China’s intellectual, ideological, & religious re-centralization

Lecture five. Change within existing tradition: expansion & modification of primary institutional, ideological, intellectual, & religious tradition during the Song Dynasty, 960-1279

Defining characteristics of traditional Chinese civilization

• An absolute monarchy

• a centralized bureaucratic system of government

• a governing elite consisting of Shidafu (scholar-officials)

• a civil service examination system

• the dominance of classical Confucianism & neo-Confucianism

Strictly speaking, all those defining characteristics of the traditional Chinese civilization took their final form during the Song Dynasty (960-1279)

I. founding of the Song Dynasty

How was the Song Dynasty founded?

• It resulted from a mutiny at Chen Bridge in 960

• Reports of imminent nomadic invasion

• Song Taizu to head an expeditionary force

Mutiny at Chen Bridge, 960 CE

Song Taizu: founder of Song Dynasty

the Song Dynasty, 960-1279

Song Taizu & his successors expanded an existing civil service examination system, which the Sui dynasty had established in 581.

II. Expanding primary institutional tradition: origins and evolution of the civil service examination system

Defining Civil Service Examination System: It was a system of official examination & recruitment. The term civil service refers to China’s traditional administrative bureaucracy. Since members of this bureaucracy were selected through competitive examinations, the civil service examinations served as a basic mechanism for selecting & recruiting officials until 1905.

The civil service examination system originated in the Han dynasty, 206 BC - 220 CE

In 136 BC, Han Wudi set up five professors of the five classics at the imperial court and shortly afterwards assigned 50 students to study with them, thus creating a de facto imperial academy.

During this period of Disunion (220-581 CE), a new system of recommendation- the so-called Nine Rank System- replaced examinations as the basis for office holding

Under the Nine Rank System, a member of the local aristocracy classified candidates for office into 9 ranks according to family background, character, & ability

The Sui dynasty (581-617 CE) formally established a civil service examination system

Under the Tang Dynasty (618-906 CE), 15% of government officials came from successful examination candidates.

Under the Song Dynasty the examination system reached its highest point

the examination structure, 1368-1905

• prefectural exams- Xiucai (“received talent”) (B.A.)

• provincial exams- Juren (“Elevated man”) (M.A.)

• metropolitan exams- Jinshi (“presented scholar”) (Ph.D.)

• entry-level position for a Jinshi- County Magistrate

How competitive were the examinations? During the 12th century, anywhere between 80,000 to 400,000 candidates took the qualifying exams at prefectural capitals each year. However, only about 600 were conferred Jinshi/Ph.D degrees every three years. The ratio of success? 400:1 or 2000:1

# of civil servants vs. # of terminal degree granted

Spatial structure of examination hall

The largest examination hall (used until 1905) located in Nanjing, China

Years ago, your instructor attempted to take the examinations at Nanjing Examination Hall.

Quilin, Guangxi Province

Karst landscape: an area of limestone terrane characterized by sharp cliffs, ravines, & underground streams

generous reward for being number one

cheat book used by examination candidates: complete explanation of five Confucian classics

What explains the CSES’s significance?

• it allowed upward social mobility by creating a mechanism that is radically different from the one developed in every other civilization

• it created a new governing elite called Shidafu (scholar-officials) who achieved elite status because of their success in the competitive examinations

• it freed the emperor from dependence on the aristocracy & contributed to the establishment of a truly centralized bureaucratic system of government by conferring the emperor the power to elevate those of modest social origins.

“night revel”: Song Dynasty shidafu having an evening party at home

gathering of Ming Dynasty shidafu in the apricot garden in Beijing, 1437

China’s scholar-officials became known to the West as Mandarins in reference to the dialect of Chinese they spoke

there is a local connection to the Mandarin

In the absence of the CSES, high-ranking officials were recruited from members of the aristocracy through a system of recommendation- the Nine Ranks System

A system of recommendation was implemented during the period of disunion (220-581), the Sui (581-608), and Tang (608-906) dynasties.

Key developments & implications

• The expansion of the examination system led to the disappearance of the Chinese aristocracy from the political scene. Their disappearance removed a major obstacle for the establishment of a truly centralized bureaucratic system of government.

• The examination-produced Shidafu (scholar-officials) replaced the aristocracy as the governing elite after the 10th century, a fact that helps explain larger & radically different patterns of political and institutional change at both ends of Eurasia.

The Magna Carta stated that the king should observe “the law of the land” & that the king could not proceed against anyone without following the due process of the common law. If the king wished to do something beyond the prevailing law of the land, he could do so only with the consent of the community of organized nobles.

king john forced to sign the Magna Carta (1215)

We concluded that, in the case of the european civlization, modern civil rights & liberties first developed as feudal rights that the nobility obtained from the monarchy. In other words, modern civil rights & liberties resulted from the sustained conflict between the monarchy & the nobility.

In light of the European experience, and in light of the disappearance of the Chinese aristocracy and their replacement by Shidafu (scholar-officials), the absence/lack of civil rights & liberties in the Chinese civilization must be explained by the absence/lack of sustained conflict between the monarchy and the nobility after the founding of the Song dynasty.

IV. Modifying primary intellectual, ideological, & religious tradition: the development of neo-confucianism during the Song Dynasty

Basic teachings of Confucius

• he wanted to establish an ideal society based on a well-defined social hierarchy & a code of moral conduct

• he placed special emphasis on the role of the ruler, for he believed that government was fundamentally a matter of ethics

• he was concerned with the education of individuals, desiring to produce nobleman in the sense of a cultivated man or superior man

Mencius’s contributions to Confucianism

• the belief that human nature is potentially good: Mencius revised the theory of Mandate of Heaven developed by Zhou rulers. For Mencius, the mandate of heaven manifested itself only through the acceptance of a ruler by his people. Mencius’s redefinition made welfare of the people the ultimate standard for judging government.

Key points about Confucianism

• Confucianism emerged in response to the sustained systemic crisis of Chinese society

• The Confucian solution to crisis was restoration of traditions, cultivation of virtuous rulers & individuals, & the establishment of government by moral examples. It was moral & ethical in character.

Classical Confucianism was a combination or fusion of sociopolitical philosophy and ethical-moral religion. As such, classical Confucianism lacked a cosmological framework. To put it differently, Classical Confucianism did not address cosmological issues such as the origin and structure of the universe

Cosmology: a specific theory or model of the physical universe

During the period of Disunion (220-581 CE), Confucianism became discredited as Buddhism established itself the dominant religion in China. What’s more, both Buddhism and Daoism (a native Chinese religion) addressed cosmological issues such as the origin and structure of the universe. As Confucian scholars attempted to revive Confucianism during the Tang (618-906) & Song (960-1279) dynasties, they encountered challenges from Buddhism and Daoism.

In response to challenges presented by Buddhism and Daoism, Song Confucianism strengthened itself by incorporating and appropriating cosmological conceptions of Buddhism and Daoism, thereby creating a radically new cosmological framework for traditional Confucian ideas. The incorporation and appropriation of cosmological conceptions of Buddhism and Daoism led to the emergence of Neo-Confucianism during the Song dynasty. In Zhu Xi’s case, Zhu Xi responded to the challenges presented by Buddhism & Daoism by incorporating & appropriating their cosmological conceptions into Confucian ideology/religion.

Song Neo-Confucianism is best embodied in the teachings of Zhu Xi (1130-1200)

Zhu Xi, 1130-1200

Zhu Xi from village in Fujian

Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucianism can best be understood in terms of two spheres: the larger sphere of the universe and the smaller sphere of human society

Everything was thought to have Li and Qi

• Li: within the universe: universal principle

• Qi: within the universe: material force

• Example: if Li as the universal principle constitutes the pattern for cars, then the concrete cars consist of Qi or material manifestation of Li such as engines.

Zhu Xi’s theory of Li and Qi is strikingly similar to a theory developed by Aristotle (384-322 BC)

Aristotle thought form & matter were inseparable

• form: ultimate reality or universal principle

• matter: material manifestation of the ultimate reality or universal principle

• example: if form as the ultimate reality or universal principle constitutes the pattern for cars, then the concrete cars consist of matter or material manifestation of form such as engines.

Meaning of Li and Qi in human society

• Li: within human society: moral principle and potentially good human nature

• Qi: within human society: organization of human society, human relations, and Confucian classics

What is NEW about Neo-Confucianism?: Neo-Confucian scholars offered a radically new cosmological framework for traditional Confucian ideas by developing concepts such as Li (principle) and Qi (material force), concepts that were derived from Buddhism & Daoism.

Incorporation/appropriation led to the combination or fusion of three teachings. Here is a depiction of three vinegar tasters: Confucius, Buddha, & Laozi (founder of Daoism). Their verdict, “THE THREE TEACHINGS ARE ONE!” is a reflection of the long history, mutual influence, and, to some extent, complementary teachings of China’s three belief systems.

Classical confucianism → neo-confucianism

“investigation of things” - mechanism/method for comprehending/understanding universal principle

By 1313, Zhu Xi’s commentaries on Confucian classics- the Four Books- had become required readings for all civil service examination candidates after 1313

Defining The Four Books: four ancient Confucian texts with Zhu Xi’s interpretative commentaries. The texts were used as official subject matter for civil service examinations in China from 1313 to 1905 & serve to introduce students to Confucian literature.

Defining The Five Classics: Five ancient Chinese books associated with Confucius. They were compiled [put together] during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 CE) and invoked as authorities on Chinese society, government, literature, & religion. They were taught from 136 BC to 1905 CE

Let’s place the emergence of Neo-Confucianism in Eurasian historical context

format of civil service examinations (provincial and metropolitan) 1793-1898

The case of Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) & Zhu Xi (1130-1200) demonstrates that both Christian scholars and Confucian scholars responded to challenge by incorporating and appropriating concepts/ideas/approaches from other schools of thought/belief systems/religions

Thomas Aquinas was born into an elite family in Italy about 1225

Thomas Aquinas spent 9 years at the monastery at Monte Cassino founded by Benedict of Nursia

Thomas was exposed to the work of Aristotle for the first time at the University of Naples

Thomas attended the University of Paris

Thomas was exposed to the teachings of Averroes at the University of Paris

Averroes believed that faith and reason could be contradictory (mutually opposed)

The teaching of Averroes attracted disciples in the Faculty of Arts at the University of Paris

Condemnation of Thomas Aquinas, 1277: In 1277, the masters of Paris, the highest theological jurisdiction in the roman catholic church, condemned 219 propositions. Among these propositions, 12 were those of Thomas Aquinas. The penalty for anyone teaching the listed errors was excommunication. Thomas saw no contradiction between Aristotle & Christian revelation, but rather saw them as complementary authorities. For Thomas, Aristotle provided the most powerful analysis of the world according to human reason, while Christianity explained the world & human affairs as the result of a divine plan.

Scholastic theology represented the harmonization of the rational approach to human society & nature & the Christian religion or the synthesis of reason & faith.

Christian scholars responded to the challenge presented by the primary intellectual tradition by incorporating & appropriating its rational approach

Thomas Aquinas’s commentaries on the Old Testament and New Testament became required readings for all Christians

• canonized (declared a deceased person to be a saint) in 1323

• named doctor (theologian) of the roman catholic church in 1567

• proclaimed the protagonist (leading figure) of Orthodoxy at the end of the 19th century

Lecture Six. Imposing alien rule: the Mongol Yuan dynasty, 1279-1368

I. global context: the role of nomadic peoples in world history

germanic invasion of Europe vikings magyars muslims

new islamic empires 1500-1800 ottoman safavid mughal

invasion of han china by xiongnu confederation

II. genghis kahn and mongol conquest of china

The founder of the Mongol Empire was Genghis Khan.

When Genghis Khan was a boy

In 1206, the assembly of Mongol Nobles gave him the title Genghis Khan (“Universal Ruler”)

Genghis Khan had completed the conquest of the Jin Empire by the time he died (d. 1227)

Kublai Khan and his wife

The conquest of China did not begin in earnest until after 1260 under Genghis Khan’s grandson Kublai Khan, who became the Great Khan in 1260

It was Kublai Khan who conquered China and founded the Yuan Dynasty in 1279

The Mongol rulers created an essentially Chinese-style bureaucratic system of government

• An absolute monarchy

• a centralized bureaucratic system of government

• a governing elite consisting of Shidafu (scholar-officials)

• a civil service examination system

• the dominance of classical Confucianism & neo-Confucianism

the Mongols established an ethnic hierarchy similar to India’s caste system in China under the Ming dynasty

Lecture Seven. restoration of chinese rule & the potential for radical change: the native ming dynasty, 1368-1644

I. Expelling the Mongols & Founding the Ming Dynasty (Ming Taizu- founding emperor)

Was this guy the future Ming Taizu?

Ming Taizu: founding emperor of Ming Dynasty

China under the ming dynasty

ming city wall and gates

II. consequences of Mongol rule: the case of the great wall of china

Capital: from Nanjing to Beijing (1421)

The Warring States, 500-221 BC

China under the Qin dynasty

the Great Wall of china

Jiayu Pass: westernmost point of the Great Wall of China

Shanhai Pass: easternmost point of the Great Wall of China

The Great Wall of China was a Ming-dynasty project and it was designed to prevent invasion by the Mongols and other nomadic peoples

The Ming dynasty saw the recreation of the defining characteristics of Chinese civilization

• An absolute monarchy

• a centralized bureaucratic system of government

• a governing elite consisting of Shidafu (scholar-officials)

• a civil service examination system

• the dominance of classical Confucianism & neo-Confucianism

Despite the restoration of Chinese institutions, two developments suggest that the Chinese civilization under the Ming dynasty had the potential to develop in radically different directions. These developments are the Seven Voyages of Zheng He and missionary activities.

III. potential for radical change: the case of Zheng He’s Seven Voyages, 1405-1433

Admiral Zheng He, 1371-1435

Basic facts for 1st voyage, 1405

• 62 ships with an average of 3,000 tons each

• a staff consisting of 70 eunuchs, 180 medical personnel, and 5 astrologers

• 300 military officers with 27,800 soldiers

ships for Zheng He’s voyage

size difference: Chinese & European ships during the 15th century

Nina: full-scale replica of a Columbus ship ever built, 1991

Analysis of Zheng He’s voyages, 1405-1433

• they were not voyages of exploration in the Columbian sense

• they were political & diplomatic in nature; they were not commercial or colonizing ventures

• they demonstrated China’s potential to develop maritime trade & become a maritime power

• they represented a deviation/aberration from the established pattern of a self-sufficient agricultural civilization, which did NOT motivate the Chinese to make sustained effort to undertake geographical exploration or create trading empires

IV. potential for radical change: the case of Matteo Ricci, 1552-1610

The Society of Jesus: founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola, the Society of Jesus is a Christian religious order of the Roman Catholic Church in service to the universal church, whose members are called Jesuits. Today, Jesuits are the largest male religious order of the roman catholic church, with about 20,000 members in 100 countries.

Members of the Society of Jesus

Matteo Ricci began to immerse himself in the study of the Chinese language & Confucian classics after he arrived in China in 1582.

Matteo Ricci & his convert

Spring-driven mechanical clock first appeared in Italy in the 13th century

Defining Exclusivity of Christianity: the term exclusivity refers to the belief that Christianity is the only true religion and that all other belief systems are fallacious creeds

The Chinese had for centuries honored Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism at the same time.

Jesuit contribution to global transmission of Confucian knowledge: the Jesuits were very active in transmitting Confucian knowledge to Europe. Confucius works were translated into European languages by Jesuit scholars stationed in China. Matteo Ricci reported on the thoughts of Confucius, & Prospero Intorcetta published the life & works of Confucius in Latin in 1687

As a result of global transmission of knowledge on Confucianism, Chinese names Kongzi and Mongzi are spelled as Confucius & Mencius, respectively. In other words, the names “Confucius” & “Mencius” came from Jesuit missionaries; they are a Latinization of these Chinese names

Lecture eight: imposing alien rule in China: the Chinese world order under the Manchu Qing Dynasty, 1644-1750

I. Rise of the Manchus

having established the Qing dynasty in 1636, the Manchus completed their conquest of ming china in 1644

II. Manchus’ cultural & institutional assimilation

Founding Emperor of the Qing Dynasty

Emperor Kangxi and Manchu woman

Emperor Kangxi (r. 1662-1722)

The Manchus reestablished the traditional six government ministries

• ministry of personnel

• ministry of revenue

• ministry of rites

• ministry of war

• ministry of justice

• ministry of works

The examination of structures, 1368-1905

• prefectural exams- Xiucai (“received talent”) (B.A.)

• provincial exams- Juren (“Elevated man”) (M.A.)

• metropolitan exams- Jinshi (“presented scholar”) (Ph.D.)

• entry-level position for a Jinshi- County Magistrate

Manchus assimilation by dominant Chinese culture, practices, & institutions

In the end, the Manchus became thoroughly assimilated by dominant Chinese culture and institutions

III. Chinese world order: the tribute system in international relations in east and southeast asia

Defining tribute system: it refers to the principles and regulations governing China’s foreign relations. As such, the tribute system provided a basic framework for international relations in East Asia and Southeast Asia.

Six defining characteristics of traditional Chinese civilization (960-1860)

• An absolute monarchy

• a centralized bureaucratic system of government

• a governing elite consisting of Shidafu (scholar-officials)

• a civil service examination system

• the dominance of classical Confucianism & neo-Confucianism

• a tribute system governing China’s foreign relations

Comparing the tribute system with international law today: key similarities

• Just as international law is accepted by the community of nations, the tribute system was accepted by virtually all east asian as well as southeastern asian countries.

• Just as international law originated in Europe & extended to the rest of the world, the tribute system originated in China & represented an extension of China’s domestic social & political order to the outside world

China sought to establish a hierarchical order with suzerain (a nation that controls another nation in international relations but allows its domestic sovereignty)-vassal like relations between China & other nations.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi died in 1598 out of frustration for his inability to conquer Korea & Ming China (1592-1598)

Tribute missions gather at the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City

The Forbidden City in Beijing

Ketou [Kowtow]: prescribed prostrations

Significance of the tribute system

• it provided a basic & stable framework of international relations in East & Southeast Asia until the end of the 18th century. The system’s stability can be explained by the dominance of a single country in East Asia & Southeast Asian civilization.

• The European states encountered & accepted the tribute system when they intruded in East Asia during the 17th and 18th centuries.

The European & russian states accepted the tribute system as a legitimate framework of international relations in East Asia & Southeast Asia. Out of a total of 17 European & russian missions to China from 1655 to 1795, all but one yielded to the Qing demand & performed ketou [kowtow] or prescribed prostration to the Qing emperor.

themes of chinese civilization

• formation & expansion of primary traditions

• introduction, expansion, & decline of secondary religious tradition

• synthesis of primary & secondary traditions

• conflict between sedentary & nomadic traditions

• change within existing traditions