Physio Exam 1

physiology

the science/ study of body function; “the branch of biology dealing with the functions and activities of living organisms and their parts, including all physical and chemical process”

parts of the body

work together; proper functioning of one part depends on the function of a different part or parts

lung expansion is conrolled by the nervous system

give one example of the parts of the body workign together:

cell, tissue, organ, organ system

give the levels or organization:

cell

the simplest living thing

tissue

multiple cells of the same type

organ

composed of at least two tissue types performing specific functions

organ system

collection of organs performing a particular task

neurons

muscle cells

epithelial cells

connective tissues cells

cells can be classified into four groups:

200

the body has more than ___ different cell types

nerve tissue

muscle tissue

epithelium (epithelial tissue)

connective tissue

list 4 major cell types un the human body:

neuron and nerve tissue

transmit signals for communication; have branches to receive (information from receptors) or transmit messages (to mscles and other organs); some process information

muscle cell

specialized to contract; can be voluntary or involuntary

skeletal muscle

voluntary muscle cell;

cardiac muscle

involuntary muscle cell;

smooth muscle

flexing of an arm

pumping of blood

mixing of food in the stomach

give an example of each:

skeletal muscle

cardiac muscle

smooth muscle

epithelium

sheet like layer of cells that lines external body surfaces and hollow organs or vessels

Function: a barrier, transports, lining

simple epithelial

has one cell between the lumen and basement membrane

stratified epithelial

has more then one layer of cells between the lumen and basement membrane

Flat (squamous)

cubed (cuboidal)

retangular (columnar)

3 shapes of cells:

glands

formed from epithelium and manufacture a product (sweat glands)

exocrine gland

endocrine gland

2 major classes of glands:

exocrine glands

the gland that has ducts (ex. sweat, salivary)

endocrine gland

the gland that has no ducts; releases hormones into blood (ex. pitpuitary, adrenal)

connective tissue

most diverse of the four tissues and is characterized by an extracellular matrix

function: anchors and links body structures

(ex. bone, tendons, fat, blood)

endocrine

nervous

musculoskeletal

cardiovascular

raspiratory

urinary

gastrointestinal

reproductive

immune

integumentary

list the 10 organ systems:

Endocrine system

Function: provide communication between cells of the body through the release of homones into the bloodstream

(ex. hypothalamus, pitputary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, pancreas)

nervous system

Function: provide communication between cells of the body through electrical signals and the release of neurotransmitters into small gaps between certain cells

(ex. brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves)

musculoskeletal system

function: support the body; allow voluntary movement of the body; allow facial expressions

(ex. skeletal muscle, bones, tendons, ligaments)

cardiovascular system

function: transport molecules throughout the body in the blood stream

(ex. heart, blood vessels, blood)

respiratory system

function: bring ocygen into the body and eliminate carbon dioxide from the body

(ex. lungs, pharynx, trachea, bronchi)

urinary system

function: filter the blood to regulate acidity, blood volume, and ion concentration; eliminate wastes

(ex. kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra)

gastrointestinal system

Function: break down food and absorb it into the body

(ex. mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancrease, gallbladder)

reproductive system

Function: generate offspring

(ex. gonads, reproductive trancts and glands)

immune system

Function: defend the body against pathogens and abnormal cells

(ex. white blood cells, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, adenoids)

integumentary system

function: protects the body from the external environment

(ex. skin)

external and internal environments

are separated by a continuous epithelial membrane (barrier)

external environment

external side of the epithelial body barrier

(ex. surroundings external to the skin, air in the lungs, food in stomach, urine in bladder)

internal environment

immediate environment of most cells; includes tissue fluid and plasma

(ex. tissue fluid is fluid around all other cell, plasma is fluid around blood cells)

interstitial fluis

is fluis around all other cells

external-internal exchange

Nutrients and oxygen will come in the body while wastes and unneeded material will go out

diffusion

absorption, secretion

filtration, reabsorption, secretion

how do each preform external-internal exchange:

lungs

gastrointestinal tract

kidneys

compartments

contain fluids and are separated by epithelial membranes that are semipermeable

function: divide the body and transportation between each

total body water (TBW)

consists of water and dissolved materials; includes solution within surrounding cells

Intracellular fluid (ICF)

fluid inside cells (cytoplasm, nuceloplasm)

extracellular fluid (ECF)

fluid outside cells but within body

plasma

interstitial fluid

extracellular fluid (ECF) has 2 subdivisions:

plasma

surrounds blood cells

interstitial fluid

surrounds all other cells

60%

40%,20%

~20%,~80%

total body water in a human ____

of that ___ is intracellular fluid (ICF) and ___ extracellular fluid (ECF)

of the ECF ___ is the plasma and ____ is the interstitial fluid

homeostasis

requires organ system integration (disruption is the basis for disease and death)

Function: maintains a relatively constant internal environment

temperature

volume

composition

components of the internal environment that are rgulated by homeostasis:

regulated cariable

one of the properties which is maintained through homeostasis

(ex. blood glucose concentration, pH, Plasma sodium)

set point

homestasis has an expected value of a regulated variable

(ex. core body temp. = 98.6F, 37C; blood glucose = 100mg/dL; blood pH = 7.4)

error signal

the difference between the set point and balue of the regulated variable

negative feedback

increases or decreases in a regulated variable; tends to be self-correcting

receptors

sensors that detect stimuli

(ex. thermoreceptors, chemoreceptors, baroreceptors)

integrating centers

orchestrate response of a stimuli; many are int he brain

effectors

carry out the response from a stimuli (ex. muscles, glands)

chemical

electrical

2 types of signals used for homeostasis:

input signal

is from a receptor to an integrating center

output signal

is from an integrating center to an effector

Diabetes Mellitus (latin: to siphon, honey sweet)

a metabolic disease where blood glucose and urine glucose levels are elevated and plasma volumes are affected; affacets every organ system

symptoms: excessive thirst, massive fluid loss

diabetes mellitus type 1

lack of insulin; accounts for 5-10% of all diabetes cases

diabetes mellitus type 2

impaired response to normal insulin levels; the responsiveness dampens down from getting too much insulin to often

body mass index (BMI)

measures weight relative to height; used to define obesity

Body weight (kg)/ height (m)² =

overweight: 25-29

obese: 30-39

morbid obesity: >40 (more than 100 lb overweight)

Biomolecules

Molecules synthesized by living things; contain carbon

carbohydrates

lipids

proteins

nucleic acids

four basic types of biomolecules:

carbohydrates

composed of C, H, and O (C_n(H₂O)_n = (CH₂O)_n)

monosaccharides

disaccharides

polysaccharides

three types of carbohydrates:

monosaccharides

can be glucose, fructose, and galactose; all have the same chemical formula and the hydroxyl groups make them polar

disaccharides

are two monosaccharides linked together; sucrose and lactose

polysaccharides

a chain of saccharides with branches (glycogen); large energy molecules that are ment to be broken down into energy (storage form)

condensation reaction

the joining of monosaccharides together (condense into smaller space)

hydrolysis reaction

splitting of a larger saccharide into smaller components, with net addition of water

lipids

are composed primarily of hydrogen and carbon atoms; have nonpolar covalent bonds and are hydrophobic

triglycerides

phospholipids

eicosanoids

steroids

four major classes of lipids

triglycerides

contains glycerol and 3 fatty acids

function: dense energy storer of fatty acids

phospholipids

raw round substance of the membrane that make up the cells and organs

eicosanoids

type of lipid that can be used in the case of hormones; modified fatty acids that function in intercellular communication (prostaglandins, thromboxanes): derived from arachidonic acid

steroids

lipid signaling molecules that are derived from cholestrol (estrogen, testerone, aldosterone)

glycerol

3 carbon alcohol

fatty acid

long carbon chain with a carboxyl group at terminus

ketones in diabetes

hydrolysis of triglycerides in adipose tissue, free fatty acids released into blood or converted into this by the liver

ketosis (ketoacidosis)

the buildup of ketones (acetone breath); acetoacetic acid, acetone, and alpha-hydroxybutyric acid are used when carbohydrate metabolism is not working

phospholipids

are amphipathic molecules; core material of membranes

Hydrophilic (polar) head (phosphate containing group)

glycerol backbone

hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails (two fatty acid chains)

What makes up the phospholipid molecule (phosphatidylcholine)

micelle

reaction of phospholipids with water creates unique structures like this; are used for drug delivery ( has to be hydrophobic inside)

protein

a polymer (chemical chain) of amino acids (50-several 10000s)

peptides

generally 2-50 amino acids

peptide bond

covalent bond between carboxyl group of one amino acid and amino group of another amino acid

primary structure

level of protein structure that has sequence of amino acids

secondary structure

level of protein structure with spatial arrangement of amino acids near one another in linear sequence caused by hydrogen bonding between amino hydrogen of one amino acid residue and carboxyl oxygen of another (alpha helix, beta pleated sheet)

tertiary structure

level of protein structure with spatial arrangement of amino acids far apart in linear squence; formation of bends and loops in a polypeptide chain due to interaction between R groups

ionic bonds

van der waals force

hydrogen bonds

covalent bonds

4 interactions resulting in tertiary structure:

hydrogen bonds

has a polarity that gives a partial charge that acts with other ones

quaternary structure

level of protein structure with a spatial arrangement of proteins with more than one polypeptide chain (hemoglobin)

fibrous protein

a protein that interweaves (collagen); the parts that face each other need to by glycines

mixed protein

have both fibrous and globular proteins (myosin)