AP Psych - Unit 2 Part 1

Metacognition *

"Thinking about our thinking"

- Can involve examining how we are thinking, cognitive steps, biases, approach

Cognitive Biases *

SYSTEMATIC ways of thinking that interfere with a person's ability to draw rational + objective conclusions

- can lead to...skewed perceptions, faulty judgement, bad decision-making

Concepts *

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

EX. Concept of a "chair": recognizes highchairs, recliners, dentists' chairs, classroom chairs, etc.

--> able to form hierarchies from concepts (psychology, poli sci, etc. all fall under social science)

Prototypes *

Mental image of the best example of a specific concept or category --> contians essential elements of the concept

EX. Bird: if we encounter an unusual feathered creature, we may draw on our image of a prototypical bird to categorize it

Schema *

Mental representation of a set of connected ideas

- complex mental framework for several related concepts, ideas or routines

- Influenced by our assumptions, stereotypes, and expectations

Assimilation *

allows us to make sense of new information/situations by relating it to our existing schemas

EX. Zebra: person who has never seen a zebra may categorize as a horse with stripes.

Accomodation *

Occurs when we take in new information and then change the schema in order to incorporate that new information

EX. Child has a schema that a large body of water is a "lake" --> child sees ocean for first time and calls it a "lake", she is ASSIMILATING prior experiences

--> When she no longer makes that mistake she has ACCOMODATED.

Executive Functions *

Set of cognitice processes that help manage and coordinate thoughts and actions and achieve goal-directed behavior

- ability to adapt, plan and organize, prioitize, sovle problems, etc.

- PREFRONTAL CORTEX plays big role in these functions

Algorithms *

Specific set of step-by-step intructions designed to preform a task or solve a problem

EX. recipes!

Heuristics *

mental shortcut (or "rule of thumb") used for problem solving and decision making --> allows for quick and efficient judgements

EX. usually agreeing w position of political party and voting for candidate in that party w/o considering the person themselves

EX. avoiding considering a job bc there is a typo on the ad for it

Representativeness heuristic *

judging how closely something represents or matches our prototype for a given category

EX. assuming someone is wealthy bc they are wearing a business suit

Availability heuristic *

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory --> if an instance quickly comes to mind (maybe they are highly emotional or vivid) we presume the instance is common

EX. eating a food and having such a bad stomachache (vivid memory) you avoid the food even if the stomachache could've been for an unrelated reason --> you think it will happen again

Confirmation Bias *

tendency to seach for information that only supports your thinking, and purposely ignoring/dismissing contradictory evidence

Mental set *

tendency to approach decision making with a specific mindset based on past experiences

Priming *

involves exposing people to certain stimuli that unconsciously influences behavior or decisions

EX. smelling the candle in Mrs. Eddings' room while learning Psych concepts, then smelling that same candle during the test --> candle priming us to recall information from past classes

Framing *

cognitive bias in which the way the information is worded influences how ppl perceive it and decisions they make related to it

EX. 97% the everything will be fine vs. 3% of parachutes don't open

Gambler's Fallacy and Sunk-Cost Fallacy

G.F : occurs when ppl believe that the outcomes of random events are influenced by previous outcomes --> actually independent events !!

S.C.F : occurs when ppl continue investing resources into a project or endeavor because they have aready invested significant resources (even when continuing to invest wouldn't be rational)

Covergent thinking *

where a question only has one correct answer --> LIMITS creativity

EX. MCQ tests

Divergent thinking *

involved when a question or problem can have many possible responses --> PROMOTES creativity

EX. FRQ tests

Functional fixedness *

- hinders creativity

cognitive bias that limits a person's ability to see alternative uses for familiar objects or to think about problems in novel ways bc they are fixated on common use

EX. need to tie hair up but you don't have elastic band. you have mask, but functional fixedness prevents you from realizing that you could use mask to tie your hair up

Recall *

measure of memory in which person must RETRIEVE INFORMATION learned earlier

EX. fill-in-the-blank test

Recognition *

IDENTIFYING items previously learned

EX. multiple choice question test recognition

Relearning *

LEARNING SOMETHING MORE QUICKLY when you learn it a second or later time

EX. when you review first weeks of course work to prepare for final exam, it will be easier to relearn the material then it was to learn initially

Models of memory

1. biological approach 2. information-processing model 3. levels of processing model

Biological approach

focuses on memory as product of interconnected neural networks

- LONG TERM POTENTIATION * is physical basis for learning and memory

--> refers to the increased efficiency in neural firing, result from repeated connections between neurons ("cells that fire together, wire together")

Information-processing model

likens human memory to computer systems

Encode *: get info into brain

Store *: retain encoded info over time

Retrieve*: later get info back out of brain

Three-Stage Multi-Store Model *

Sensory memory * : immediate, very brief recording of info picked up by senosry organs --> iconic and echoic

Short-term memory *: temporarily holds a few select items in consciousness before it is either stored or forgotten

Long-term memory *: relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory system --> includes knowledge, skils, experiences

Iconic memory *

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

--> few tenths of a second

snapshot that is constantly replaced with new snapshots!

"EYE" - conic

Echoic memory *

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

--> 3 or 4 seconds

think of the word "ECHO" to remind you this is about SOUND.

Capacity *

amount of info that the store can hold

--> CAPACITY OF SENSORY MEMORY: essentially limitless

Effortful vs Automatic Processing *

Effortful processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

--> must proceed through our short-term memory in order to eventually be stored in long-term

Automatic processing*: encoding that doesn't require attention and conscious effort

--> encoded directly from sensory memory into long-term memory

Automatic Processing Track *

automatic processing creates IMPLICIT MEMORIES *

--> procedural memories of skills that are so well learned that they are "automatic"

EX. how to ride a bike

Space--> encoding of spatial info

Time--> unintentionally encode sequence of your day's events

Frequency--> effortlessly keep track of how many times things happen

Effortful Processing Track *

creates EXPLICIT MEMORIES *

Semantic memories *: facts and general knowledge

Episodic memories *: events in one's own past

MNEMONIC: think of your life as a TV show --> Episodic memories are "episodes" of your life

Role of Selective Attention *

REVEIW: selective attention is ability to focus your conscious awareness on particular stimulus while blocking out competing stimuli

- info that isnt novel or important enough to gain our attention may be LOST/FORGOTTEN rather than transferred to short-term memory

Nuances of Working Memory *

Short-term and long-term memories combine in the "scratchpad" of our working memory

Analyze info received in working memory and retrieve relevant info from long term storage

typically hold about 7 pieces * of info (+- 2 ) in short term/working memory

"Central Executive" *

...of working memory

- directs and focuses our attention on the stimuli needed for us to accomplish our working memory tasks ("the boss")

2 subsystems: phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

CE: Phonological loop *

memory component that briefly holds auditory info as you engage in active processing

--> auditory info from sensory memory (EX. what your teacher just said) or long term memory (remembering sound of your mother's voice)

CE: Visuospatial sketchpad *

memory component that briefly holds info about object's appearance and location in space as you engage in active processing

--> visual info from sensory memory (EX. where to look to spot a deer) or long term memory (EX. where you keep certin spice jar in cabinet)

Maintenance Rehearsal *

info is repeated to keep it actively present in working memory for brief period

TEMPORARILY HOLD INFO

Elaborative Rehearsal *

cognitive strategy here you actively connect new info to existing knowledge in your long term memory by creating meaningful associations, images, or stories

--> helps transfer info from short term to long term

DEEPER level of processing

Multi-Store Model: Parallel vs Sequential Processing *

Parallel processing: processing multiple aspects of stimulus simultaneously

--> typical for implicit memories

Sequential processing: processing one aspect of a stimulus at a time

--> typical for explicit memories

- typically we engage in ONE effortful processing task simultaneously with NUMEROUS automatic processing tasks

Levels of processing *

Shallow processing *: focuses on the superficials elements of words --> such as sound or appearance

--> Structural encoding *: based on physical appearance of a word

--> Phonemic encoding *: based on the sound of a word

Deep processing *: involves semantic encoding --> involves the meaning of words

--> Research *: deep processing (semantic encoding) leads to BETTER RETENTION

Chunking *

organizing information into familiar, manageable units (i.e. letters, words, phrases) enables us to recall it more easily.

Mnemonics *

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Method of loci * (aka Memory Palace)

visualize a familiar location and mentall place items you want to remember in that space

Hierarchies *

organizing knowledge into hierarchies (broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts promotes efficient retrieval

Distributed Practice *

we retain information better when our encoding is distriuted over time

Spacing effect *

tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study ("cramming")

Testing effect *

enhanced memory after retrieving rather than simplay rereading info

--> quizlets and flashcards are a more effective way to study than simply highlighting or reading!!

Memory Consolidation *

refers to the neural process if converting short term memories into long term memories

- involves strengthening of neural connections through LONG TERM POTENTIATION

Hippocampus involved in explicit memory *

plays important role in memory formation but memories aren't permanantly stored in hippocampus

--> seems to act as a loading dock where brain registers and temporarily holds info until tranferred for storage elsewhere

DAMAGE to hippocampus serverly disrupts formation and recall of explicit memories

HM (Case study of Henry Molaison) *

Hippocampus removed in hopes of reducing seizures

- couldn't form new long term explicit memories (anterograde amnesia)

- but could still preform tests bc working memory worked

Infantile amnesia *

as adults, our conscious memory of our first four years is largely blank

Role of Amygdala in memory *

amygdala involved in emotion-related memory formation

Retrospective memory *

remembering experiences or info we learned in the PAST

Prospective memory *

pertains to our intended future actions

--> remembering to do something in the future

Priming (2) *

activation, often unconsciously, of a particular associations in memory

- often a "memoryless memory" - implicit, invisible memory wo your conscious awareness

Context-Dependent memory *

has to do with retrieval cues in our ENVIORNMENT --> putting yourself back in the context where you experienced soemthing easier can prime your memory retrieval

EX when visiting a childhood home old memories surface

State-Dependent Memory *

what we learn when in a specific internal state may be mroe easiily recalled when we are again in that state

Can pertain to physical state, AND mental state!

--> Mood-congruent memory *: tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

Serial-Position Effect *

tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (RECENCY EFFECT ) and the first items in a list after a delay (PRIMACY EFFECT )

Highly superior autobiographical memory *

rare condition that leads ppl to remember an abnormally large number of their life experiences in vivid detail

Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve *

initially rapid forgetting but the levels off w time

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon 8

inability to recall a word or idea wile being certian it is in your memory

Proactive Interference *

PRevious information is blocking recall of new information

Retroactive Interference *

REcent information is blocking recall of old information

Freud's concept of Repression *

repression is the theory that we keep painful or unacceptable memories out of our conscious awareness

most researchers believe * that repression rarely, if ever, occurs.

Anterograde amnesia *

Don't rememebr anything AFTER accident

--> inability to form new explicit memories, CAN form new implicit memories

Retrograde amnesia *

dont remember anything BEFORE the accident

Constructive memory *

process by which memories are actively reconstructed, elaborated on, or modified during such retrieval

Misinformation effect *

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading info

Imagination inflation *

once misinformed and false memories are planted ppl will fill in rich details

Source amnesia *

inability to remember origin of memory while retaining its substance

Hindsight bias *

"i knew it all along" phenomenon

we tend to believe that after learning an outcome that we would have forseen it