Introduction to Anatomy, Physiology, Chemistry, and Cellular Organization

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering basic human anatomy and physiology, structural organization, homeostatic feedback, chemical fundamentals, inorganic and organic compounds, transport processes, cellular organelles, protein synthesis, mitosis, and stem cell differentiation.

What is the etymological origin and definition of human anatomy?

The term anatomy comes from a Greek root meaning "to cut apart" and is the scientific study of the body's physical structures.

How do gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy differ?

Gross (macroscopic) anatomy considers larger structures visible without magnification, whereas microscopic anatomy focuses on structures observable only with a microscope, including cytology (study of cells) and histology (study of tissues).

What are the six levels of structural organization in the human body, ordered from simplest to most complex?

The chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, and organism level.

What are the timeline thresholds for brain damage and death resulting from oxygen deprivation?

Brain damage is likely within $5\,\text{minutes}$ without oxygen, and death is likely within $10\,\text{minutes}$.

What core temperatures are target values during clinically induced controlled hypothermia for open-heart surgery?

The patient's body core is cooled to $25\,\text{to}\,32\,^\circ\text{C}$ ($79\,\text{to}\,89\,^\circ\text{F}$), and the heart muscle is maintained below 15\,\text{^\circ C} ($60\,^\circ\text{F}$).

What is decompression sickness (DCS), and what causes it?

DCS (or "the bends") is a condition where gases dissolved in blood or tissues—primarily nitrogen—come rapidly out of solution to form bubbles following a fast reduction in barometric pressure.

What are the three primary components of a homeostatic negative feedback loop?

A sensor (or receptor) that monitors a physiological value, a control center that compares the value to a set point, and an effector that causes a change to reverse the deviation.

What constitutes the standard anatomical position?

The body standing upright, feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward, upper limbs held out to each side, and palms facing forward.

What anatomical planes divide the body into right/left, front/back, and upper/lower portions?

The sagittal plane divides vertically into right and left sides; the frontal (coronal) plane divides into anterior (front) and posterior (rear) portions; the transverse plane divides horizontally into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.

What are the two layers of a serous membrane and their structural relationship?

The parietal layer lines the walls of the body cavity, and the visceral layer covers the internal organs (viscera), with a thin, fluid-filled serous space situated between them.

Who made the first durable X-ray image of a living human, and in what year?

German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen made the first durable X-ray image in 1895 (an image of his wife's hand) and received the first Nobel Prize for Physics in 1901.

What are the four most abundant elements in the human body?

Oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N).

What is the mass of an electron relative to a proton or neutron?

An electron has approximately $\frac{1}{2000}\text{th}$ the mass of a proton or neutron.

How do atomic number and mass number differ?

Atomic number is the total number of protons in an atom's nucleus, which identifies the element; mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

What are the three common isotopes of hydrogen and their subatomic compositions?

Protium ($^1\text{H}$: 1 proton, 0 neutrons), Deuterium ($^2\text{H}$: 1 proton, 1 neutron), and Tritium ($^3\text{H}$: 1 proton, 2 neutrons).

What is the octet rule governing atomic stability?

The principle stating that an atom will give up, gain, or share electrons with another atom until there are eight electrons in its valence shell (except for single-shell atoms like hydrogen and helium, which are stable with two).

How do ionic bonds form compared to covalent bonds?

Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged ions (cations and anions) resulting from electron donation and acceptance, whereas covalent bonds form when atoms share electron pairs in overlapping atomic orbitals.

How do exergonic and endergonic chemical reactions differ regarding energy balance?

Exergonic reactions release more energy than they absorb, whereas endergonic reactions absorb more energy than they release.

What chemical equation represents the overall reaction converting glucose and oxygen into ATP, carbon dioxide, and water?

$$\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\text{O}_2 \rightarrow 6\text{CO}_2 + 6\text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{ATP}$$

What molecular weight and particle count define a $1\,\text{M}$ solution of glucose?

A $1\,\text{M}$ glucose solution contains $180.156\,\text{g}$ (its gram molecular weight) dissolved in water to equal $1\,\text{liter}$, yielding $6.02 \times 10^{23}$ glucose molecules (Avogadro's number).

What is the normal physiological pH range of human blood?

Human blood pH normally ranges strictly from $7.35$ to $7.45$ (typically cited as pH $7.4$).

What five functional groups are central to human organic chemistry?

Hydroxyl ($-\text{OH}$), carboxyl ($-\text{COOH}$), amino ($-\text{NH}_2$), methyl ($-\text{CH}_3$), and phosphate groups.

What are the four levels of structural organization in proteins?

Primary structure (amino acid sequence), secondary structure (alpha helices or beta-pleated sheets via hydrogen bonds), tertiary structure (3D folding and disulfide bonds), and quaternary structure (interactions between two or more tertiary subunits).

What three molecular components assemble to form a nucleotide?

One or more phosphate groups, a pentose sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), and a nitrogen-containing base (adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, or uracil).

Who first observed living, moving cells under a microscope?

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek observed living cells in the 1670s, approximately ten years after Robert Hooke coined the term "cell" from dead cork tissue in 1665.

What ion movement ratio is executed by the sodium-potassium pump ($\text{Na}^+/\text{K}^+$ ATPase)?

The pump exports $3\,\text{Na}^+$ ions out of the cell and imports $2\,\text{K}^+$ ions into the cell for every single molecule of ATP consumed.

What pathogenetic mechanism causes sticky mucus build-up in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF)?

A mutated CFTR gene produces a defective or absent chloride channel protein, impairing transport of $\text{Cl}^-$ ions out of respiratory epithelial cells and preventing osmotic water movement into the mucus.

What are the major metabolic functions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)?

Synthesis of phospholipids and steroid hormones, regulation and storage of cellular calcium ($\text{Ca}^{2+}$), carbohydrate metabolism, and breakdown of specific toxins.

How do peroxisomes safely manage hydrogen peroxide ($\text{H}_2\text{O}_2$) formed during chemical detoxification?

Peroxisomes contain specific enzymes that neutralize $\text{H}_2\text{O}_2$ by converting it into water ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$) and oxygen ($\text{O}_2$).

What are the three structural filaments of the cytoskeleton arranged from thickest to thinnest?

Microtubules (composed of tubulin), intermediate filaments (composed of keratin), and microfilaments (composed of actin).

What occurs during pre-mRNA splicing inside the nucleus?

A molecular structure called a spliceosome cuts out non-coding regions called introns from pre-mRNA and splices the remaining coding sequences called exons back together.

What sub-phases make up Interphase in the cell cycle, and what are their typical durations?

$G_1$ (first gap/growth phase; variable duration), S phase (DNA synthesis; 8 to 10 hours), and $G_2$ (second gap phase; approximately 5 hours).

What are the four sequential stages of mitosis?

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.

What hierarchy classifies stem cells based on their differentiation potential from broadest to narrowest?

Totipotent (zygote/early embryonic), pluripotent (embryonic/iPSC), multipotent (fetal/adult tissue line), oligopotent (few cell types), and unipotent (single cell type).