Equine

Identify the 2 types of community housing for horses

1. Individual housing (traditional stabling, ‘American’ barns)

2. Group housing (crew yards)

Describe the advantages and disadvantages of grass-kept horses

• Natural

• Allows access to natural forage

• Supports exercise and fitness

• A break from routine

• Enables horse-to-horse contact

• Some horses do not cope well in stables

Describe the key requirements of housing horses

• Stable should be a suitable size

• Free access to water

• Adequate ventilation and drainage

• Bedding

• Should be free from draughts or water damage

Describe the environmental impacts of keeping horses

• Overgrazing and/or overstocking

• High parasite burden (high faecal load)

• Destruction of turf

• Carcass disposal: cremation, abattoir, hunt kennels, burial

• Disposal of waste bedding

Identify some good management practices of keeping horses

• Fresh, clean water

• Well-maintained fields (check daily for litter, poisonous plants, debris, etc)

• Regular dropping removal

• Appropriate and well-maintained fencing

• Natural/artificial shelter

• Appropriate stocking density

• Recommended 1-1.5 acres per horse

• Routine harrowing

• Fertilising and ‘topping’ pastures

• ‘Resting’ paddocks

Identify some consequences of poor management practices of keeping horses

• Reduced access to appropriate nutrition

• Increased risk of injury and disease

• Increased risk of endoparasites

• Development of undesirable behaviour

Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using straw as bedding for horses

Advantages

• Readily available (time of year may affect price)

• Relatively cheap

• Easy to use

Disadvantages

• Can vary in quality

• May contain high levels of  dust and mould spores

• Muckheap can be large and hard to keep tidy

Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using wood shavings as bedding for horses

Advantages

• Low dust levels

• Provide support for hooves

• Easily stored

Disadvantages

• Low quality shavings can be contaminated with sharp splinters and other dangerous waste

• Quality varies greatly, particularly in dust content
  

Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using shredded wood fibre as bedding for horses

Advantages

• Made from recycled white wood 

• Low dust levels

• Absorbent

• Less likely to move around- reducing injury

• Consistently high quality, provides hoof support

Disadvantages

• More expensive

Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using flex and hemp as bedding for horses

Advantages

• Low dust content

• Easily stored

Disadvantages

• More expensive

• Not suitable for horses that eat their bedding

Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using paper as bedding for horses

Advantages

• Made from recycled papers

• Low dust levels

• Non-palatable

• Easy to store

Disadvantages

• Harder to muck

• Large number of bales needed

• When wet, becomes very soggy

Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using cardboard as bedding for horses

Advantages

• Low dust content

• Clumps when wet

Disadvantages

• Difficult to separate from droppings

• Leaves bare patches when horse gets up

Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using rubber matting as bedding for horses

Advantages

• Provides excellent support for hooves

• Provides better grip- reducing injury

Disadvantages

• Initially expensive

• Bedding material should be added on top

• Mats must be cleaned regularly

What is the heart rate of a healthy horse?

28-44bpm

What is the respiratory rate of a healthy horse?

8-16bpm

What is the rectal temperature of a healthy horse?

37.5-38.5 degrees Celsius

What is the mucous membrane colour of a healthy horse?

Salmon pink

What is the gestation period of a healthy horse?

320-340 days

When is the sexual maturation of a healthy horse?

12-24 months

How would you describe:

• A female horse under the age of 4

• A female horse over the age of 4

• An intact male horse under the age of 4

• An intact male horse over the age of 4

• A castrated male horse

• Female (under 4)= Filly

• Female (4+)= Mare

• Uncastrated male (under 4)= Colt

• Uncastrated male (4+)= Stallion

• Castrated male (any age)= Gelding

What is the gestation and time of puberty in donkeys?

• Gestation: 340-370 days

• Puberty: 12-24 months

How would you describe:

• A female donkey

• A male donkey

• The offspring of a male donkey and a female horse

• The offspring of a female donkey and a male horse

• Female donkey= Jenny

• Male donkey= Jack

• Jack + Mare= Mule

• Stallion + Jenny= Hinny

Describe how preventative healthcare is managed in horses

• Vaccination:

  • As a minimum, horses should be annually vaccinated against equine influenza and tetanus 

  • Some vaccinations are compulsory for competitions

Describe the common equine diseases

• Equine influenza: highly contagious viral disease affecting the respiratory tract

• Tetanus: life-threatening bacterial disease caused by toxin from Clostridium tetani

• ‘Strangles’: respiratory disease caused by the bacteria Streptococcus equi

• Equine herpes virus: contagious respiratory virus (some strains can cause neurological disease and abortion)

Describe how biosecurity is managed in horses

• Minimises risk of disease introduction and prevents the spread of disease

• Routine monitoring of health and keeping vaccinations up to date

• Isolating new arrivals for a minimum of 21 days

• Prevent direct contact and sharing of water sources off the yard

• Ensure good hygiene: provide each horse with their own equipment

• Clean and disinfect boots, outer clothing and equipment after visiting other yards/events

Describe how foot care is managed in horses

• Should be seen to by a registered farrier every 4-8 weeks 

• Farriers work closely with vets when remedial shoeing is required

Describe how dental care is managed in horses

• Teeth ‘grow’ continuously 

• Molars grind laterally: should be examined as a minimum every 12 months by a qualified veterinary surgeon or a registered equine dental technician (EDT)

Describe how worming is managed in horses

• Wide range of equine endoparasites including: small and large roundworm, small redworm, tapeworms

• Routine faecal worm egg counts every 8-12 weeks

Describe the nutritional requirements of horses

• Lack of suitable diet can negatively impact physical/mental health

• Evolved to eat a high-fibre diet:

  • Good quality forage must make up biggest part of the diet

  • This includes hay, haylage and grass

• Primarily hind-gut fermenters:

  • Most digestion occurs via continual microbial fermentation

• ‘Trickle feeders’:

  • Designed to eat little but often

  • Should not be left without forage for more than 3-4 hours

• Equine feedstuffs:

  • Forage: can be chaff (dried, chopped forage), grass, hay, haylage, root succulents and by-products (e.g sugar beet- never give when dry)

  • Hard feed/cereals/concentrates: fed if additional energy is needed, life-stage and exercise dependent, formulated to include essential vitamins and minerals

Describe how body condition scoring is used in horses

• An objective method of assessing fat coverage in horses

• Useful in determining if a horse is a healthy weight

• Visual observation and hands-on palpation

• 2 different scales used:

  • 5 point scale (3 areas assessed, added and divided by 3)

• 9 point scale (6 areas assessed, added and divided by 6)

Which areas are assessed on the 9-point BCS in horses?

1. Neck

2. Withers

3. Behind the shoulder

4. Ribs

5. Loins

6. Tailhead

Describe how weight tapes are used when assessing body condition in horses

• Not 100% accurate, but convenient for owners

• Easy to track if weight is fluctuating

1. Ensure horse is stood level

2. Place the tape over the lowest point of withers

3. Pass around the horse close to the elbow

4. Tape should be pulled snuggly around the body

5. Read off the weight estimate

Describe the 3 plants that are poisonous to horses

1. Ragwort 

• Can cause irreparable liver damage

• Often fatal as late onset of clinical signs

2. Oak

• Acorns contain tannic acid

• Severe illness if large quantities are consumed

3. Sycamore 

• Can cause atypical myopathy (AM) or seasonal pasture myopathy (SPM)

• Caused by the ingestion of the toxin Hypoglycin-A (HGA)

Draw a diagram of the injection sites on horses

List some common emergencies horses experience

• Colic (abdominal issues)

• Wounds

• Severe lameness

• Respiratory distress

• Choke

• Eye problems

• Laminitis

Describe how horses are used in the equine industry

• Food

• Transport

• Farming

• Military

• Haulage

• Sport

• Thoroughbred racing

• Dressage

Describe the natural social structure of horses

• Free-roaming, able to reproduce

• Close contact with other horses

• Seasonal changes in feed

• Family ‘bands’

  • Harem/family: stable core of mares > 4 years old, one or more stallion, offspring

  • Mare and offspring: no stallion, usually together for 6 months

  • Bachelor: young males, older males no longer in harem/family

Describe the domesticated social structure of horses

• Individually houses

• Unstable herd hierarchy

• Reduction in horse-to-horse contact

• No natural ‘bands’

• Often separated by age or gender

• ‘Herds’ created by humans

• Reproduction, exercise and diet dictated by humans

How do horses use communication in social settings?

• Prey animal: use fight or flight and mask pain to some extent

• Primarily use body language to communicate- using facial expressions, ear position, head height, limb and tail movement

• Occasionally use vocalisation (whinny, squeal, nicker, snort) to convey dominance, discipline, danger or separation

What are the types of abnormal behaviour you may see in horses?

• Oral

  • ‘Wind-sucking’: arching the neck and ‘gulping’ in air, no contact with surfaces

  • ‘Crib-biting’: grasping a surface with teeth and pulling back, can be followed by a ‘gulp’ of air

• Locomotive

  • ‘Box walking’: constant, repetitive movement within stable

  • ‘Weaving’: rocking the body and/or swinging the neck side to side

What are the common causes of abnormal behaviour in horses?

• Inappropriate diet or feeding practices

• Limited social contact

• Locomotive restrictions due to inappropriate housing

• Abrupt or inappropriate weaning methods

How can you prevent abnormal behaviour in horses?

• Cribbing strap/collar

• Ensure housing is sufficient

• Application of aversive liquid

• Ensure social contact is sufficient

• Anti weaving bars

• Ensure diet/feeding behaviour is sufficient

What is a ‘yearling‘?

A young horse between one and two years old

What is a ‘broodmare‘?

A female adult horse (mare) kept for breeding purposes

What is a ‘dam‘?

The mother of a racehorse

What is a ‘sire‘?

The father of a racehorse

Outline the evolutionary history of the horse

• The horse we see today is the product of over 50 million years of evolution, which occurred across several continents

• Changes in climate and geography, as well as interactions with other animal and plant species, influenced the adaptations that were successful in each generation

1. Hyracotherium

2. Mesohippus

3. Merychippus

4. Pliohippus

5. Equus

Describe the hyracotherium

• Also known as the eohippus or ‘dawn horse’

• Emerged over 52 million years ago, at roughly the size of a fox

• Roamed the forest browsing on soft fruit and foliage

• Key evolutionary traits: 

  • Forelimbs: four toes ending in small, hoof-like appendages (vestigial fifth toe)

  • Hind limbs: three toes ending in small, hood-like appendages (vestigial first and fifth toe)

  • Teeth adapted for browsing

Describe the mesohippus

• Emerged around 35 million years ago- when the climate became drier and the first grass species began to emerge: over time, forests declined to open flatlands containing various grasses and small shrubs

• Key evolutionary traits:

  • Increase in body size

  • Both forelimbs and hind limbs had three toes ending in small, hoof-like appendages (vestigial first and fifth toe)

  • Legs were longer and more suited to running in open areas

  • Teeth began to adapt to a grazing diet

Describe the merychippus

• Emerged around 23 million years ago- the largest equid to have existed at the time, and the first to have the distinctive head shape of the horse we see today

• Key evolutionary traits:

  • Increase in body size

• Single ‘hoof’ (third toe) on both forelimbs and hindlimbs- second and fourth toes present but smaller/not touching the ground

• Teeth developed a higher crown in response to a predominantly grazing diet

Describe the pliohippus

• Emerged around 15 million years ago- very similar in appearance to the horse we see today (long, slim limbs and suited to a grazing diet)

• Key evolutionary traits:

• Increase in body size

• Lateral location of eyes

• Single ‘hoof’ (third toe) on both forelimbs and hindlimbs- second and fourth toes now non-functional and barely visible

• High-crowned teeth suited to grazing

When did equus emerge?

Emerged around 7 million years ago in the family equidae (along with seven other species)

What is the kingdom, phylum, class, order and family of the domestic horse?

Kingdom: Animal

Phylum: Chordate

Class: Mammal

Order: Perissodactyl

Family: Equidae

Draw out the family ‘equidae’, including the order and relative genus

Give the height, coat colours, key characteristics and disciplines of:

• Arabian horses

• Thoroughbred horses

• Connemara horses

• Warmblood horses

• Irish draught horses

• Welsh mountain ponies

• Welsh ponies

• Welsh ponies (cob type)

• Welsh cobs

• Cobs

How should you safely approach a horse?

• Approach a horse at their shoulder: they cannot see directly in-front or behind

• Speak to them to let them know where you are

• Always be calm, patient and quiet

• Complete all practical activities on the ‘near (left) -side’ of the horse (leading, tacking up, putting on headcollars/rugs, picking out the feet, mounting or dismounting)

What are the signs of low arousal in horses?

• Ears in a neutral position

• Ears occasionally moving back and forth

• Head level with withers

• Resting a hind leg

• Droopy bottom lip

What are the signs of high arousal in horses?

• Ears flat against head

• Ears alert

• Head above level of withers

• Constant limb movement

• Whites of eyes showing

• Tense neck muscles

What is lunging and when is it used?

• A form of controlled exercise for horses

• Involves the horse moving around a handler on a circle at the end of a ‘lunge line’

• Can be used:

  • As an alternative form of exercise if the horse cannot be ridden

  • As a training aid to improve fitness, muscle definition and suppleness

  • To help identify lameness during a veterinary examination

Describe the two most common methods of restraint in horses

• Head collar and lead rope- commonly used for most non-ridden activities

• Bridle- used when a head collar does not provide adequate levels of restraint, and has the addition of a ‘bit’, but not as strong as a ‘Chifney’

Describe how and when ‘Chifey’s’ are used as restraint in horses

• Applies pressure directly to the horse’s tongue and bars of the mouth, giving the handler more control

• It is an in-hand bit, meaning it is used to handle horses on the ground only

• Often used in veterinary practice when trotting up or examining horses which require a stronger form of restraint 

• Can be used with or without a head collar, with the lead rope attaching to the loop which sits below the horse’s chin

• This method of restraint should be used with great care, as serious damage to the horse’s mouth can occur if misused

Describe how nose/neck twitches are used as restraint in horses

Neck and/or nose twitch- used to restrain horses for short periods of time ( <5 minutes)

• Nose twitch- placing a ‘humane’/wooden device on the top lip and applying pressure

• Neck twitch- grasping a fold of skin on the neck and twisting

• Research suggests that the horse is immobilised due to: stimulation of nerve endings resulting in the release of endorphins, the horse reacting to the twitch as a painful stimuli, the horse becoming flooded with sensory information

• A twitch should not be used on every horse, or for every veterinary procedure: ensure restraint methods are tailored to the individual horse/situation

Describe how chemicals are used as restraint in horses

Chemical- sedation, restraint for a longer time period (e.g when taking multiple radiographs)

Describe how holding one leg is used as restraint in horses

Holding one leg- restraint for a short time period (e.g distal limb nerve blocks)

Describe what equine boots are used for and the name different types

• Protect the horse’s distal limb

• There are various types- usage is often discipline dependent

  • Overreach boots 

  • Brushing boots

  • Travel boots

  • Tendon boots: protect tendons on the palmer aspect of the fore legs from being struck by the hind feet when jumping

  • Fetlock boots: protects the medial aspect of the hind fetlocks from injury when jumping

How and why are tail bandages used for horses?

• Commonly used to protect the tail from damage during transportation, or prior to competition

• In veterinary practice, tail bandages are useful for keeping the tail clean and out of the way during procedures such as rectal examinations, pregnancy scans and artificial insemination 

• Must not be left on for more than 3 hours

• Tail must be dry prior to applying the bandage to prevent rubs/sores

• Equal pressure should be applied to the entire bandage

• The bandage straps should be fastened using the same pressure as the rest of the bandage

How and why are rugs used for horses?

• Used to provide extra warmth and protection during wet/cold weather 

• ‘Stable’ rugs are used in the stable and keep the horse warm, but they are not waterproof

• ‘Turnout’ rugs are used in the field to protect the horse from the elements- they are waterproof

Describe how you would pick out the feet of the horse

• Face the tail of the horse and place one hand supporting the fetlock to turn the hoof upwards and begin picking the feet

• Run your hand down the caudal aspect of the leg when lifting the front foot

• Run your hand down the medial aspect of the leg when lifting the hind foot

• Clean out around the frog, the central sulcus and then the around the hoof wall- working from heel to toe

Describe how ‘friends, forage and freedom’ relates to the welfare legislation of horses

1. Freedom (to move and perform natural behaviour): daily turnout in a field, or access to a large school/yard. Stables should be large enough for them to move, lie down and get up comfortably- this can be encouraged by placing enrichment around the stable

2. Friends: horses need regular contact with their own species (social, herd-dwelling animal)- ideally kept in a herd to allow for social/physical interaction during turnout. They should be stabled with animals they are familiar with- where they can touch and see each other

3. Forage: hay, haylage and grass should be the basis of their diet- increased access shown to reduce many health issues. Horses shouldn’t be left for long periods of time without access to forage- and diets should be reviewed regularly to ensure key micronutrients are provided

Name the five freedoms and their provisions

Describe the Veterinary Surgeons Act (1966) legislation around horses

• Only qualified veterinary surgeons, registered with the RCVS, can perform acts of veterinary surgery in the UK

• Veterinary surgeons may direct registered/student veterinary nurses employed at their practice to complete certain clinical procedures- including vaccinations, monitoring of anaesthesia and minor surgery

• As a veterinary student, you will be required to undertake acts of veterinary surgery as part of your clinical training. To be able to do this, the Veterinary Surgeons (Practice by Students) (Amendment) Regulations 1993 was introduced to allow registered veterinary students to perform a range of clinical procedures- whilst under the under the direct supervision of a registered veterinary surgeon

• Some aspects of a horse's care, e.g farriery or dentistry, can be performed by non-veterinary surgeons; however, the individual must be suitably qualified and registered. Category 1 and 2 equine dental procedures can be undertaken by Equine Dental Technicians (EDTs) who have trained and passed an examination approved by DEFRA. However, category 3 procedures, which involve vascular or innervated tissue, can only be performed by qualified veterinary surgeons

Describe the Farriers (Registration) Act 1975 and Farriers Registration (Amendment) Act 1977 legislation around horses

• Only trained, and appropriately registered, farriers can perform acts of farriery in the UK

• An act of farriery is described within the Act as being, "any work in connection with the preparation or treatment of the foot of a horse for the immediate reception of a shoe thereon, the fitting by nailing or otherwise of a shoe to the foot or the finishing off of such work to the foot”

• Barefoot trimming (trimming a horse’s hoof but not applying a shoe) is not considered an act of farriery

• All farriers in England, Scotland and Wales must be registered with the Farriers Registration Council (FRC)

• The FRC is responsible for maintaining a register of farriers eligible to practise, regulating farriery education up to the point of registration, and regulating professional conduct

• The Worshipful Company of Farriers (WCF) encourages continued professional development amongst qualified farriers, being the awarding body for the farrier qualifications of Diploma, Associate and Fellow

Describe the Equine Identification Regulations legislation around horses

• All equids in the UK must have an equine passport and be microchipped as stated in these regulations:

  • The Equine Identification (England) Regulations 2018

  • The Equine Animal Identification (Scotland) Regulations 2019

  • The Equine Identification (Wales) Regulations 2019

  • The Equine Identification Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2019

• Equine passport applications must be completed by a qualified veterinary surgeon before being sent to be registered with one of 81 UK passport issuing organisations

• Horse owners must apply for an equine passport within 6 months of their horse’s birth

• Passport applications submitted to UK PIOs are held on the central equine database (subsequently managed by the equine register)

• As of October 2020, microchipping of all equines in England became compulsory: including equines born on or before 30 June 2009- those born after should already be microchipped as mandated by previous legislation

Describe the key organisations responsible in equine welfare

• BHA: responsible for overall governance, administration and regulation of the British horseracing industry

• Jockey club: aims to widen participation within the British horseracing industry to create a sustainable future for the sport

• Wetherbys: all thoroughbred horses bred to race in Britain and Ireland must be registered. They also maintain the general stud book for thoroughbreds

• Horserace betting levy board: non-departmental body which creates a statutory levy from horseracing bookmakers- these funds are applied to a wide range of schemes

• British equestrian: national governing body for all horse sports in the UK

• Federation equestre internationale: international governing body of equestrian sports 

• National equine welfare council: established in 1977 as a key point of contact on equine welfare

• British horse council: established in 2018 to combine the work of British horse industry confederation and the Equine sector council for health and welfare

What are the ‘10 principles of certification’?

• Equine passports are classed as certificates: veterinary surgeons must adhere to RCVS guidance regarding certificate completion

1. Certify knowledge only: only certify matters within your own knowledge

2. Avoid conflicts of interest

3. Independence

4. Clear and simple language

5. Unambiguous terms

6. Secure and unique: should be unique and numbered

7. Understand the language: only sign off if you understand the language

8. Identify subjects clearly

9. Originals only

10. Record keeping: a record must be retained by the veterinarian or their practice

How are microchips administered and recorded in horses

• Placed in or adjacent to, the nuchal ligament at the top of the left mid crest

• Prior to implantation: scan the neck for the presence of a microchip, test that the microchip is functioning correctly

• After implantation: re-scan the implantation site to confirm successful implantation

• Location of microchip must be recorded on the passport silhouette and narrative

What is the purpose of equine passports?

• Record routine vaccinations

• Indicate if a horse is intended for human consumption (and which medications it can therefore receive)

• Provide both a written narrative and drawn silhouette 

• Contain a horse’s breeding history, microchip number and owner details

Passport information and microchip details are held by the Central Equine Database and National ChipChecker: managed by Equine Register for DEFRA 

All equids must by law have a passport from 6 months of age

What are ‘white markings’, and what are the different types?

• Areas of naturally occurring white hair on face/legs

• Each horse has their own unique set of white markings

• These must be recorded on the silhouette and narrative

• Narrative for all white markings must be written as concisely

as possible

• Red pen and hatching is used to indicate white marking

A: Star D: Snip

B: Stripe E: Interrupted stripe

C: Blaze F: White face

What are Ermine marks?

Small black dots within a white marking

What are the different characteristics you may see on horses? Specifically those which should be labelled on an equine passport

Lower images: whorls

How do you measure equine height?

• Traditionally measured in ‘hands high’. One hand= 4 inches

• A measuring stick is used to take an accurate height (measured from ground to highest point of withers). Horse should be stood ‘square’ on a level surface

• Most modern designs have 3 measurements (hands, inches, centimetres)

• Horses: 14.3 hh or over at maturity

• Ponies: 14.2 hh or under at maturity

What are the basic coat colours of horses?

• Bay (main body can vary from light to dark whilst mane, tail and lower limbs are predominantly black)

• Brown (dark brown, almost black body with a black mane, tail and lower limbs)

• Black (black body with a black mane, tail and lower limbs)

• Chestnut (main body can vary from light to dark with white or similar coloured lower limbs)

• Grey (not white- several shades/variations exist but all have black skin)

• Piebald (irregular patches of black and white)

• Skewbald (irregular patches of white on a non-black coat)

• Cream/cremello (pale cream to ivory coat, pink skin and nose with blue/amber eyes)

• Dun (dilutes black and red pigments to lighter shades whilst leaving mane, tail and lower limbs dark)

• Palomino (golden body paired with white/flaxen mane, tail and lower limbs)

• Roan: red or blue colourings on the muzzle and feet