General Chemistry: Matter, Atomic Structure, Stoichiometry, and Solutions

Vocabulary flashcards covering foundational concepts of general chemistry, including scientific inquiry, classification of matter, atomic structure, stoichiometry, chemical equations, concentration units, and acid-base theories.

Idola tribus

Errors inherent to human nature and shared human limitations, such as making premature generalizations or trusting easily deceived senses.

Idola specus

Individual biases arising from a person's specific background, education, and narrow personal perspective.

Idola fori

Biases resulting from language, imprecise word choices, ambiguous definitions, and verbal arguments.

Idola theatri

Biases stemming from false philosophical systems, dogmatic methods of thought, and unquestioned traditional beliefs.

Pseudoscience

Ideas or claims presented as scientific that lack support from rigorous scientific evidence and testing.

Chemistry

The scientific study of matter, including its composition, structure, properties, and the changes it undergoes.

Matter

Anything that possesses mass and occupies physical space.

Solid

A state of matter characterized by a definite volume and a definite shape.

Liquid

A state of matter characterized by a definite volume but no fixed shape, taking the form of its container.

Gas

A state of matter that has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape, expanding to occupy its entire container.

Sublimation

The phase transition in which a solid changes directly into a gas without passing through the liquid state.

Atom

The smallest unit of an element that retains its chemical identity and cannot be further broken down by chemical means.

Molecule

A neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

Allotropy

The ability of a chemical element to exist in two or more distinct structural forms in the same physical state.

Brownian Motion

The continuous, random jiggling motion of microscopic particles suspended in a fluid due to collisions with fluid molecules.

Homogeneous Mixture

A mixture whose constituent substances are uniformly distributed throughout, presenting a single uniform phase.

Heterogeneous Mixture

A mixture whose components are not uniformly distributed, giving it distinguishable regions or phases.

Tyndall Effect

The scattering of light by suspended or colloidal particles in a mixture, which does not occur in true solutions.

Plum-Pudding Model

An early atomic model proposed by J. J. Thomson featuring electrons embedded within a uniform sphere of positive electric charge.

Atomic Number ($Z$)

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Mass Number ($A$)

The total sum of protons and neutrons contained in an atomic nucleus.

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element with identical atomic numbers ($Z$) but different mass numbers ($A$) due to varying neutron counts.

Cation

A positively charged ion formed when an atom or group of atoms donates one or more electrons.

Anion

A negatively charged ion formed when an atom or group of atoms accepts one or more electrons.

Formula Unit

The smallest representative group of cations and anions exhibiting the exact chemical ratio of an ionic compound.

Polyatomic Ion

A group of covalently bonded atoms that carries an overall positive or negative electric charge.

Catenation

The covalent bonding of an element, such as carbon, to other atoms of the same element to construct extended chains or rings.

Network Covalent Structure

A continuous structure in which every atom is covalently bonded to neighboring atoms throughout the bulk material.

Mole

The SI unit for amount of substance, defined as containing exactly $6.02 \times 10^{23}$ elementary particles.

Molar Mass

An intensive physical property representing the mass in grams of one mole of a substance, expressed in units of $g/mol$.

Empirical Formula

A chemical formula showing the simplest whole-number ratio of elements present in a compound.

Molecular Formula

A chemical formula stating the exact actual number of atoms of each element present in a single molecule.

Phlogiston Theory

An obsolete theory claiming that combustible materials contain a element called phlogiston that escapes during burning.

Law of Conservation of Mass

The principle stating that total mass remains constant during a chemical change, as matter is neither created nor destroyed.

Limiting Reactant

The reactant that is entirely consumed first during a chemical reaction, placing an upper limit on product yield.

Theoretical Yield

The maximum mass of product that can form in a chemical reaction based on stoichiometry and starting reactant quantities.

Percent Yield

The efficiency ratio calculated as: $\text{Percent Yield} = \frac{\text{Actual Yield}}{\text{Theoretical Yield}} \times 100\%$.

Molarity ($M$)

A concentration unit defined as moles of solute divided by liters of solution: $M = \frac{\text{Moles of solute}}{\text{Liters of solution}}$.

Molality ($m$)

A temperature-independent concentration unit defined as moles of solute per kilogram of solvent: $m = \frac{\text{Moles of solute}}{\text{Kilograms of solvent}}$.

Normality ($N$)

A concentration unit defined as gram equivalents of solute per liter of solution: $N = \frac{\text{Gram equivalents}}{\text{Volume of solution in liters}}$.

Electrolyte

A substance that separates into ions when dissolved in water or melted, forming a solution that conducts electricity.

Nonelectrolyte

A substance that dissolves in water to produce a molecular solution that cannot conduct electric current.

Galvanic Cell

An electrochemical cell (or voltaic cell) that spontaneously converts chemical energy into usable electrical energy.

Electrolytic Cell

An electrochemical cell that uses external electrical current to drive a non-spontaneous chemical transformation.

Cathode

The electrode in an electrochemical cell where reduction (gain of electrons) universally occurs.

Anode

The electrode in an electrochemical cell where oxidation (loss of electrons) universally occurs.

Arrhenius Acid

A chemical substance that releases hydrogen ions ($\text{H}^+$) when dissolved in aqueous solution.

Arrhenius Base

A chemical substance that releases hydroxide ions ($\text{OH}^-$) when dissolved in aqueous solution.

Brønsted-Lowry Acid

A chemical species that functions as a proton ($\text{H}^+$) donor.

Brønsted-Lowry Base

A chemical species that functions as a proton ($\text{H}^+$) acceptor.

Conjugate Acid-Base Pair

Two chemical species related to one another by the gain or loss of a single proton ($\text{H}^+$).

pH

A logarithmic measure of hydrogen ion concentration in solution, defined by the formula: $\text{pH} = -\text{log}[\text{H}^+]$.