Research methods year 1

Probably everything

: What is a hypothesis?

A: A testable statement predicting the effect of the IV on the DV (e.g., "Caffeine intake will increase memory recall speed").

Q: What is a double-blind procedure?

A: Both participants and researchers are unaware of who is in the experimental/control group to prevent bias (e.g., drug trials).

Q: What are matched pairs?

A: Participants are paired based on a relevant variable (e.g., IQ for memory tests), then split into groups. + Controls participant variables; – Time-consuming.

Q: What are the levels of measurement?

A: Nominal (categories), ordinal (ranked), interval (equal intervals). Dictates stats tests: nominal → chi-square; ordinal → Mann-Whitney U.

Q: What are the limitations of peer review?

A: 1. Publication bias (positive results favored), 2. Anonymity (harsh/rival reviews), 3. Slow process (delays breakthroughs).

Q: What is a quasi-experiment?

A: The IV is a pre-existing difference (e.g., age, gender). Example: Comparing anxiety levels in men vs. women. + High realism; – No random allocation.

What is a natural experiment? The IV changes naturally (e.g., a disaster’s effect on stress). Example: Studying PTSD after an earthquake. + Ethical; – Uncontrolled variables.

Synoptic Links (Bonus AO3):

Q: How does Loftus & Palmer (1974) link to experimental methods?

A: Lab experiment with high control but low ecological validity (artificial task). Ethical issue: Deception about the study’s true aim.

Q: How does Bandura’s Bobo doll link to observations?

A: Used structured observation with operationalized behavioral categories (e.g., "aggression" = hitting, kicking).

Q: How does Milgram’s study link to ethics?

A: Broke protection from harm (extreme stress) and deception (fake shocks), but debriefing justified the study’s value.

What are experiments?

A type of research method that follow a set of rules. A hypothesis is tested by manipulating an IV to view its affects on a DV

What is an aim?

Intentions of research questions - what we intend to investigate. e.g To investigate if TV impacts the quality of homework produced by students.

What is an independent variable?

What the researcher changes to have an effect on the DV, DV is later measured.

What is a dependant variable?

Variable of the study which is measured by the researcher & has been caused by a change to the IV.

What are experimental conditions?

2 conditions which are compared to eachother to see what has an impact & what hasn't.

What is operationalization?

Making sure the variables are in a form that is easily tested, this helps researchers replicate research

What is a hypothesis?

A statement about what you believe is to be true - what you expect to find. States what will happen to the DV as a result of the DV.

What are extraneous variables?

Variables that don't systematically change with the IV but may have an impact on the DV.

What are confounding variables?

Type of extraneous variable which changes systematically with IV.

What is a directional hypothesis

Researcher makes the difference clear between the 2 conditions e.g having a distraction will cause a negative impact to results

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

States a difference between conditions/groups of people - nature of difference is not specified e.g there is a difference between the marks of those who do/don't have a distraction

When do we write a directional hypothesis?

When you know what is going to happen, if you are aware of any other research.

When do we write a non-directional hypotheis?

When you are not aware of what will happen, if you aren't aware of any other research. (You can't be incorrect using this hypothesis)

What is a null hypothesis?

A researcher is confident that the independent variable will have no effect at all on the dependant variable

What is an experimental hypothesis?

The researcher predicts the IV will have an effect on the DV.

What is a variable?

Something that can change (vary) within a study e.g a score on a memory test.

What is the independent variable?

the variable that is changed/manipulated by researcher

What is the dependent variable?

variable that is measured by the researcher

What is an extraneous variable?

Anything other than the Independent variable that may have an influence on the dependant variable. An uncontrolled variable that should be eliminated, it can negatively affect findings & can be a confounding variable

What are demand characteristics?

Clues from researcher that may allow the participants to guess aim of research. Can lead to participants changing behaviour

What are investigator effects?

Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the dependant variable. This includes design of study, selection of participants & interactions with participants.

What is randomisation?

Using chance to design the investigation (rather than researchers influence)

What is standardisation?

Ensuring all participants are subject to the same experience

What is single blind procedure?

Research procedure where researchers don't tell the participants if they're given a test treatment or control treatment. This ensures that participants don't bias the results by acting in ways they think they should act.

What is the double-bind procedure?

Both patient & staff aren't aware of the condition the participant is in. Making it impossible for participant or researcher to know if participant is getting treatment or placebo.

What are independent groups?

One group does condition A and a second group does condition B. Participants are randomly allocated to experimental groups.

• No order effects: participants are tested once so they can't practise or get tired, more natural behaviour

• Twice as many participants needed as repeated measures, more time needed & expensive

What are repeated measures?

Same participants take part in all conditions of an experiment. The order of conditions should be counterbalanced to avoid order effects.

• Half participants needed as independent groups & same person in both conditions

• Participant may do better/worse when doing a similar task again & change behaviour, reducing validity

What are matched pairs?

Two groups of participants are used but they're also related to each other by being paired on participant variables that matter for the experiment.

• No order effects, only tested once & participants are matched on a variable that's relevant to experiment

• Matching is time consuming & can't control all variables, twice as many participants are needed.

What are participant variables?

The ways in which each participant varies from the other, and how this could affect the results which may effect the variable that is being measured.

What is counterbalancing?

To combat order affects the research counter balances the order of the conditions for the participants. Alternating the order in which participants perform in different conditions of an experiment

How doe findings of attachment research benefit economic prosperity?

Recent research stresses importance of multiple attachments & role of the father in healthy psychological development, promoting flexible working arrangements in family, modern parents are better equipped to contribute into the economy

How doe findings of mental health treatment research benefit economic prosperity?

1/3 of all days off work are caused by mental disorders. Research into causes & treatments of mental disorders mean that diagnosis is quicker. Patients have access to therapies & drugs so they can manage condition effectively & contribute to the economy

What is an example of random sampling?

Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. Researcher has a list of names & uses an random generator to select required amount of participants

What is a strength of sampling?

Very low chance of biased sample because everyone has an equal chance of being selected. Improves population validity greatly

What is a limitation of sampling?

Difficult to obtain a list of all the participants, some people will be unwilling to participate & may not be available. A representive sample isn't guaranteed, some subgroups may be overrepresented or not selected

What is opportunity sampling?

Researcher selects anyone who is readily available & willing to take part. Researcher simply asks the people who are most convenient for them to ask.

What is a strength of opportunity sampling?

Time & cost efficient technique, as participants are readily available - sample sizes can be larger as expenses per individual are smaller

What is a limitation of opportunity sampling?

Samples are likely to be skewed, participants are more eager to take part which leads to confounding variables. An unrepresentative sample lacks population validity & findings can't be generalised

What is volunteer sampling?

Participants can choose to be in the study. Researcher places an advert into a newspaper, radio, internet or on a public noticeboard requesting for volunteers to take part. They may place questionnaries in public & ask people to return their answers.

What is a strength of volunteering sampling?

This method can sometimes be the only way of locating a particularly niche group of participants who are hard to identify using available information

What is a limitation of volunteering sampling?

Only atypical members of target population respond (most eager), this reduces population validity & generalisability

What is systematic sampling?

Sample made of participants chosen mathematically. A researcher selects very nth person from a sampling frame

What is a strength of systematic sampling?

Avoids bias, once researcher chose what number they're going to use to select participants they have no control over whose selected.

What is a limitation of systematic sampling?

Not as objective as random sampling, researcher may decide how people are listed before selection & what number to use on the system

What is stratified sampling?

A sample made up of participants who reflect the whole population. Sample is divided into groups & participants are chosen from each group in the same proportions as they are in the population

What is a strength of stratified sampling?

it is more likely to be representative of the target population than other methods, we can generalise results.

What is a limitation of stratified sampling?

Very time consuming & difficult compared to other techniques

What is a pilot study?

A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. Aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales are accurate

What is peer review?

Practise of using independent experts to assess quality & validity of scientific research & scholarly articles

What is the purpose of allocating research funding for pilot studies?

Research is paid for by various government & charitable bodies, public bodies require reviews to enable them to decide which research is worthwhile.

What is the purpose of publication of research in scientific journals & books?

Scientific journals give scientists the opportunity to share the results of their research. Peer review prevents faulty or incorrect data entering public domain

What is the purpose of assessing research rating of university departments?

All university science departments are expected to conduct research, this is assessed in terms of quality. Future funding for the department depends on getting good reviews from supervision

What is a positive of pilot studies?

Prevents inaccurate information researching public domain

What are the limitations of pilot studies?

Unachievable ideal, isn't always possible to find a suitable expert to review report. Publication bias - peer review tends to prefer positive results. Anonymity - research is conducted in a competitive environment, relationships between experts affect objectivity.

What is quantitative data?

Numerical data, concerned with finding facts about social phenomena, data is collected by measuring things, analysed by numerical comparisons & statistical inferences & data is reported by statistical analysis

What is a strength of quantitative data?

Easier to see patterns in data & easier to summarise & present it. Statistical analysis can be carried out

What is a limitation of quantitative data?

Does not have as much detail as qualitative data as a lot of detail is lost in numbers

What is Qualitative data?

Rich, detailed data collected in real life settings. Data is analysed by themes from descriptions by informants. Reported in language of participants

What is a strength of Qualitative data?

Preserves detail in the data

What is a limitation of qualitative data?

Hard to decide what to leave out of summary or what quotations to leave in, also very hard to analyse.

What is primary research?

Information collected during a researcher's direct observations of participants

What are the strengths of primary research?

More control on the data & getting original data, unbiased data as researcher has collected it

What are the limitations of psimary research?

Time consuming to collect all the data & analyse it