American Journalism Final Exam Study Guide

A study guide for the American Journalism final exam (JOUR1030)

Definition of Journalism

Journalism is a set of transparent, independent procedures aimed at gathering, verifying, and reporting truthful information of consequence to citizens in a democracy.

The Enlightenment Philosophy

Emphasizes the power and authority of reason over arbitrary sources, such as the power of the state. It assumes that individuals are free to exercise reason, or the source of truth.

Seditious Libel

Framers of the U.S. Constitution saw vestiges of law such as seditious libel. The ‘seditious’ part refers to a libel about government authority. “The greater the truth, the greater the libel.”

Social Responsibility Theory

It is every person's responsibility to behave in a way that benefits society or to act morally and ethically right. If the action or decision causes harm to society or the environment, it would be considered socially irresponsible.

Foundation of Truth

New journalism, even in a networked era, must be built on a foundation of truth—and that truth cannot be assumed to appear automatically from the presence of more sources. The pursuit of truth is a process that requires intellectual discipline and vigilance. It also requires memory—not forgetting about misinformation simply because the discussion has quickly moved on.

Discipline of Verification

The essential process of arriving as nearly as possible at the truth of the matter at hand. The discipline of verification is what separates journalism from entertainment, propaganda, fiction, or art.

Displacement Theory of News

Because of the internet and easy access to information, journalists have been displaced to a role that emphasizes verification and interpretation; to battle against misinformation and misleading content.

Interlocking Public Theory

The public is made up of people with different interests and levels of knowledge in different subjects. Everyone is interested, and an expert, in something. It is evidenced by the many niche websites, e-newsletters, social media platforms, and more. The diversity and magnitude of the public is a strength; an optimistic view of the public square. But today, that square is polarized. We are huddled in separate groups and not sharing the same facts and information.

Journalism of Assertion

Unbelted, unsupported claims put forth by the news organizations. Just repeating what sources say without checking the info, challenging assertions and assumptions, and seeking supporting evidence. A reason PR specialists and political consultants love TV. It’s easier to control the conservation by filibustering and making unsupported assertions.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency for people to accept information that confirms their beliefs.

Spirit of Transparency

The Spirit of Transparency is the same principle that governs the scientific method: explain how you learned something and why you believe it, so the audience can do the same. In practice, the only way to level with people about what you know is to reveal as much as possible about your sources and methods.

False Balance

Balancing a story by being fair to both sides may not be fair to the truth if both sides do not have equal weight. Balance, if it amounts to false balance, becomes distortion.

Masquerading

A special category of misleading in which journalists pose as someone else to get a story.

Objectivity

Journalists shouldn’t bring any of their personal experiences or biases into their reporting. Instead of striving to be objective, many think journalists should apply an objective method to get to the truth. They should focus on the process of journalism and what the process needs to yield information of consequence to citizens. In that pursuit, independence and transparency are key. Independence is vital to the verification process. Transparency helps hold everyone involved accountable for their work.

Fairness in Journalism

Exploring all sides of an issue and reporting the findings accurately.

Sensationalism

The use of exciting or shocking stories at the expense of accuracy, to provoke public interest or excitement.

Citizens’ Journalism

News content produced by people who don’t work full time as journalists but who might, nevertheless, engage in reporting practices that look an awful lot like the journalistic method.

Engaged Journalism

Engaged journalism is an inclusive practice that prioritizes the information needs and wants of the community members it serves, creates collaborative space for the audience in all aspects of the journalistic process, and is dedicated to building and preserving trusting relationships between journalists and the public.

What is a journalist’s first loyalty?

Citizens

Who is Walter Lippman?

He was more than just a journalist. He was part of the intellectual elite, an advisor to heads of state, and even a player in the Treaty of Versailles negotiations. In 1922, he published the book titled, ‘Public Opinion’, which speaks about the relationship between democracy and the press. Walter Lippman had a pessimistic view of Americans’ ability to govern themselves.

Who is John Dewey?

Another leading public intellectual and founder of the philosophy of pragmatism. Dewey’s 1927 book, titled, ‘The Public and Its Problems’, criticized Lippman for being wrong about democracy. John Dewey believed in the power of the people to represent themselves.

How is news/journalism separate from information?

With news, decisions have been made about what is newsworthy. The news brings meaning and context to preexisting information.

Is there great public trust in the media?

In a 2018 study by the American Press Institute, 68% of Americans said transparency was a very important factor in whether they trusted a media report. Although social media is a highly popular platform for news, it is not the most trusted source. However, 69% of adults believe the news media can restore that trust with more accuracy, transparency, and reduction of bias.

How is story generation similar to the scientific method?

You start with a hypothesis. Then, test those assertions with other sources. You must be open to the possibility that your hypothesis won’t be supported by your research. Check everything multiple times, and report the results.

How has the gatekeeper’s role in journalism changed?

Social media and the internet have made the press realize it is no longer the gatekeeper of knowledge. Instead, the press is the gatekeeper of what the public ‘should know’ and accurate, fact-checked information.

What is Trusting News?

A training and education initiative aimed at restoring news trust. Joy Mayer is the Executive Director.

What era of journalism are we in?

The Digital/New Age

When should a source be granted anonymity?

If the information is from a credible source with direct knowledge; if it brings to light important facts that otherwise would remain in the shadows; and if the information can be obtained no other way.

If an anonymous source who has misled, can they still be granted anonymity?

A growing number of journalists believe that if a source who has been granted anonymity is found to have misled the reporter, the source’s identity should be revealed. Part of the bargain of anonymity is truthfulness.

What are the 10 Elements of Journalism?

1. Journalism’s first obligation is to the truth.

2. Its first loyalty is to citizens.

3. Its essence is a discipline of verification.

4. Its practitioners must maintain independence from those they cover.

5. It must serve as an independent monitor of power.

6. It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise.

7. It must strive to make it significantly interesting and relevant.

8. It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional.

9. Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience.

10. The news must be allowed to serve as an independent source of information.

Roots of free press:

Freedom of the press was formally established in Great Britain with the lapse of the Licensing Act in 1695. The framers of the U.S. Constitution enshrined the principle of freedom of the press in the First Amendment. The Founding Fathers inherited a history of understanding a free press from English law. England had a limited legal right to press freedom but also had laws that restricted the press.

Roles of the press:

The press can have a role in rebuilding public squares by seeking to draw from and serve the interests of the widest possible community. This happens by focusing on common facts, interests, and concerns of the public, as well as eschewing partisanship and building diverse newsrooms. In this hopeful imagining of the interlocking public, the mix will be much wiser than just an involved public.

5 core functions of the press:

1. Inform, analyze, interpret, and explain

2. Investigate

3. Creates a public conversation

4. Helps generate social empathy

5. Encourages accountability

Press freedom around the world; US rank:

Press freedom around the world is being threatened by the very people who should be its guarantors – political authorities. This finding registers a global average fall of 7.6 points. Freedom of the press violations have fallen significantly in the United States, with a rank of 55/180, or 66.59.

3 metaphors for how the press functions in society:

Mirror, Watchdog, Marketplace

5 communication needs in a democracy:

1. Information

2. Accountability

3. Representation

4. Deliberation

5. Conflict Resolution

Recommendations of Hutchins Commission report:

This gave rise to the idea of journalism as a profession. Freedom of the press was in great danger due to the press’ poor performance. Created the idea that along with freedoms come public responsibilities. The report was a call to journalists to consider themselves professionals. It also marked what is known as the ‘social responsibility theory’ in journalism. While journalism is free from constraint, it must act in ways that serve the public.

Advantages of citizen’s journalism:

Can take place anywhere, from a Reddit post about attending a city council meeting to someone taking a picture of a public event and posting it on social media. They can also bring their expertise and experience to the table, which may be deeper than the ideas circulating in the newsroom.

Disadvantages of citizen’s journalism

It can be easily dismissed, it can be considered ‘fake’ journalism, and it can lack professionalism.

5 keys for news companies to maintain commitment to citizens:

1. Owners of news operations must be committed to citizens first. What matters are the values of the owner, not the structure of ownership. Corporations, private equity, and non-profits.

2. Must hire business managers who put citizens first and have a shared vision.

3. Give journalists the final say over the news. We need journalists who put citizens first, understand their audience, avoid patronizing, and guard integrity.

4. Set and communicate clear standards internally; the news organization’s standards.

5. Communicate clear standards to the public as well; challenge the skepticism and distrust of media by the public.

9 tasks of a journalist:

1. Authenticator: Helping the audience know what to believe

2. Sense Maker: Putting the events in a context that turns information into knowledge

3. Bear Witness: Being the sole news observer of an event; Not placing journalism resources where there already is a crowd of coverage

4. Watchdog: Investigative reporting; uncovering wrongdoing. Bear Witness can lead to the watchdog rule, but they’re different.

5. Curator: Aggregating essential information

6. Forum Leader: Organizing public discussion about important news

7. Empowerer: Providing tools and information so that the public can act.

8. Role Model: Being an example for other aspiring journalists.

9. Community Builder: Foster a community where people can openly express issues, opinions, and other ideas as well as gain trust in the media.

Benefits of engaged journalism:

It puts the public at the center of everything you do, and addresses the public’s concerns. It also creates collaborative spaces for the community, promoting meaningful change or solutions to common issues. Engaged journalism promotes inclusivity, seeks to reduce conflict, and helps journalists to better explain themselves.

Challenges of engaged journalism:

It could compromise journalistic independence and objectivity because it promotes a close connection with the community. Sometimes, youyou have to tell an audience something that they may not want to hear.

Social media’s role in engaged journalism:

Most people under 30 years old believe social media news as much as they believe news from a certified outlet. Engagement with the public and social media means trying to grow the audience of the news organization.

Techniques of journalism verification:

Independence, Objectivity, Transparency; Focusing on the process of journalism and what the process needs. Transparency helps hold everyone involved accountable for their work.

Challenges of journalism in the digital age:

The mix of news, opinion, and social media is often deceptive and full of vitriol. Platforms have too much control over the news they consume, and inaccurate news is a problem on social media.

For what or whom are journalists meant to be independent?

• Those that they cover

• Those that someone might have loyalty to

• Those who have an interest in promoting or protecting

Factions + Examples:

Refers to a form of narrative based on real events but employing dramatic license:

• Friends

• One’s political party

• Affiliations

• Sports teams

• Alma maters

• Investments

• Charitable organizations

What are potential conflicts of interest for journalists? + Examples:

A conflict of interest occurs when a journalist’s personal interests – family, friendships, financial, or social factors – could compromise his or her judgment, decisions, or actions in the workplace.

Neutrality misapplied; Pittsburgh Post-Gazette journalist tweet:

When misapplied, neutrality, the appearance of conflict, and objectivity reveal their truly problematic character.

George Will Situation

In a 2014 op-ed, George Will questioned the prevalence of sexual assault on college campuses and criticized the way colleges were addressing the issue. He argued that the term "sexual assault" was being applied too broadly and suggested that campuses were exaggerating the problem, essentially viewing victimhood as a "coveted status" that brings "privileges." Will’s comments were met with strong criticism from the public, survivors of sexual assault, advocacy groups, and even some lawmakers. Many accused him of minimizing the issue of campus sexual assault, being insensitive to survivors, and perpetuating harmful myths about sexual violence. Will’s column raised questions about the editorial oversight of opinion pieces. It underscored the importance of considering the potential harm and impact of commentary on vulnerable populations and the responsibility journalists and editors have in covering sensitive issues with accuracy and empathy.

The Objectivity Trap

Journalists shouldn’t incorporate any personal experiences or biases into their reporting. People who bring an understanding of any issue to their reporting based on life experiences should not report on them. As if facts mean as much when stripped out of their context; as if they equal truth. Facts are not just things that exist out in the world waiting for a journalist to notice and relay them.

Structural Bias:

Biases built into journalistic practice, favoring certain kinds of news, topics, or presentations over others.

• Temporal: Covering the mostly new things

• Bad News: Focus on conflict, strife

• Commercial

• Expediency

• Visual

• Fairness

• Narrative

• Status quo

Fairness Bias:

The common practice of offering one side a chance to comment on news generated by the other side. Similar — but not the same as a false balance. The problem is that it creates the illusion that politics is always contentious and never cooperative. It makes polarization worse by setting up every issue as a battle.

Cult of Balance:

The "Cult of Balance" in journalism refers to an excessive focus on providing equal representation or balance to opposing viewpoints, even when one side may lack credibility, evidence, or scientific consensus. This approach is also known as "false balance" or "false equivalence" and can result in misleading reporting, as it may give undue weight to less credible or less supported perspectives simply for the sake of appearing unbiased.

View from nowhere:

The ‘view from nowhere’ places journalists in a desperate position. Instead of gaining the trust of the public by truth-seeking, they pander to critics who won’t like the results anyway.

Journalism of Opinion:

Journalism that does not claim objectivity. Examples include newspaper columns, editorials, op-eds, editorial cartoons, and punditry.

Journalism of Affirmation:

Often found in political media, this type of journalism builds loyalty less on verification than on affirming the existing beliefs of its audiences by choosing information that serves a purpose and is thus closely related to marketing.

How the Internet disrupted the newspaper business model and the effects:

It made it easier to access it anytime and anywhere, most of the time for free. The effects were that it reduced revenue and allowed new competitors against traditional newspapers.

What court ruling helped the revenue of local TV stations?

Federal Communications Commission v. Midwest Video Corp. This ruling allowed cable companies to carry local broadcast television channels, thereby expanding the reach and audience of local stations.

Innovator’s Dilemma:

Why most companies miss out on news waves of innovation; No matter the industry, a successful company with established products will get pushed aside unless managers know how and when to abandon traditional business practices.

What companies dominate the digital ad market?

Google, Facebook, Amazon

Legacy media:

Legacy media is traditional media like newspapers, magazines, and radio.

What is meant by a digital-first strategy?

A business approach that prioritizes digital technology and online channels over traditional methods. It's a way for businesses and media outlets to adapt to the changing needs of consumers and the digital landscape.

What are the funding models that emerging news outlets are employing?

Reader subscriptions, membership programs, advertisements, crowdfunding, corporate sponsorships, government funding initiatives, and pay-to-access content. Several of these approaches are often combined to achieve sustainability and reach a wider audience.

What are examples of journalism innovation being tried at news organizations?

• News organizations like The New York Times and The Guardian are pioneering interactive graphics and multimedia features. They use data visualization, video, and audio integrated into stories to make complex topics more engaging and accessible.

• Platforms like ProPublica use crowdsourcing to gather data or insights from readers, allowing the public to participate in investigative journalism. Some news outlets invite readers to suggest topics or share experiences, integrating community feedback into their stories.

• Publications like The New York Times and The Atlantic are shifting to subscription-based models to reduce dependency on ad revenue, which can be volatile. Membership models encourage reader loyalty and investment in the publication.

What are the issues with measuring digital audiences by page views?

It doesn't accurately reflect user engagement, can be easily manipulated by tactics like "clickbait," and fails to capture the full picture of user interaction on a website, including factors like time spent on a page, scroll depth, and whether the user consumed the content meaningfully. Essentially, a single-page view doesn't necessarily equate to valuable audience engagement.

Importance of engagement in digital journalism; How is it measured?

It signifies active audience participation, fostering a deeper connection with readers, enhancing the impact of news stories, and ultimately contributing to a more informed public; it is measured through metrics like time spent on articles, shares, comments, likes, click-through rates, and the number of pages viewed per session on a website or platform.

New England Courant’s impact on journalism:

The New England Courant significantly impacted journalism by being one of the first American newspapers to openly criticize the government and established authorities, promoting the concept of a free press by publishing controversial content, and notably serving as the platform for Benjamin Franklin's early writing career where he published under the pseudonym "Silence Dogood", marking his entry into public discourse; essentially establishing a precedent for independent, critical journalism in the colonies.

Who was Ida B. Wells?

Ida B. Wells-Barnett was a prominent journalist, activist, and researcher in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In her lifetime, she battled sexism, racism, and violence. As a skilled writer, Wells-Barnett also used her journalism skills to shed light on the conditions of African Americans throughout the South.

Who was Nellie Bly?

Nellie Bly became a star journalist by going undercover as a patient at a New York City mental health asylum in 1887 and exposing its terrible conditions in the New York World. Her reporting not only raised awareness about mental health treatment and led to improvements in institutional conditions, but it also ushered in an age of investigative journalism. Her illustrious career also included a headline-making journey worldwide, running an oil manufacturing firm, and reporting on World War I from Europe.

Who was Rachel Carson?

Rachel Carson was a pioneering environmental scientist, writer, and journalist best known for her book Silent Spring, published in 1962. Carson's work exemplified investigative journalism in the public interest. She meticulously gathered scientific data and firsthand accounts, challenging powerful chemical industries that dismissed the risks associated with pesticides. Her approach inspired future environmental journalists and scientists to scrutinize corporate practices and government policies. She set a precedent for how journalists could blend scientific research with storytelling to drive social and political change.

How did adding the Pulitzer Prize category of investigative journalism and the Washington Post’s Watergate scandal coverage lead to the growth of investigative journalism?

Both the Pulitzer Prize and the Watergate coverage shifted the focus of journalism from just reporting the news to actively seeking out stories that had the potential to bring about societal change. Newsrooms began to see investigative journalism as not just a public service but also as an important tool for accountability. It elevated investigative reporting as an essential aspect of journalism, contributed to its institutionalization in newsrooms, and inspired a new generation of reporters to pursue stories that exposed the truth and challenged the status quo.

The famous phrase from the movie, “All the President’s Men”:

“Follow the money.”

How have courts and legislatures supported investigative journalism?

Courts and legislatures have played a significant role in supporting investigative journalism by upholding laws and establishing precedents that protect the rights of journalists to gather and report information freely. These include shield laws, First Amendment protections, freedom of information laws, and more.

What was the impact of the Freedom of Information Act?

The Freedom of Information Act has significantly empowered journalists by providing them with a legal tool to access government documents and information that might otherwise be hidden, allowing them to investigate and report on issues of public interest, hold government officials accountable, and produce stories that would not be possible without such access; essentially acting as a critical tool for investigative journalism and promoting transparency within government operations.

Importance of investigative journalism; benefits to society and news organizations:

While the public’s trust in the press has declined, investigative journalism has remained a role of the press that the public tends to favor. A 2020 survey found that 82% of Americans believed that holding powerful leaders and institutions accountable was critical. That level of support has been unchanged for two decades. Investigative reporting extends beyond making the management and execution of power transparent to making known and understanding the effects of that power. It also provides tangible benefits as the economics of industry have shifted from advertising toward consumer revenue. It is the key to attracting memberships, donations, and subscriptions. Deep investigative reporting is correlated not only with making readers more loyal but also with winning them over as subscribers. An analysis of an investigative series about the community’s probation system revealed that it cost more than $216,000 to produce, but changes in probation policies prompted by the series resulted in net benefits to society of $62 Million. Every dollar invested in an investigative report can benefit communities everywhere.

‘Just add Water’ Journalism:

When TV news consultants give story ideas and scripts to local TV stations designed to generate ratings during sweep periods. They are stories that can be produced anywhere.

How does reporting on trivial matters weaken the public’s view of investigative journalism?

It can diminish credibility and trust within an audience, desensitize people to important matters or issues, weaken public interest in investigative journalism, and foster a culture of sensationalism.

Elements of the public forum:

The forum must be open to all parts of the community, not just those most present or most vocal on social media, those who communicate effectively, or those who are demographically attractive as a target for buying sell goods and services. The forum should fairly represent varied viewpoints and interests in society. Journalism also carries a responsibility to improve the quality of debate and to play the role of honest broker and referee for public criticism and compromise. A debate focused on the extremes of an argument does not serve the public; it only enflames, nor does it improve the quality and effectiveness of decision-making in a democracy.

What is the problem with live TV interviews?

The live interview format in some TV news programs cedes power to guests and interviewees with broad power to mislead. The host has limited availability to check or correct all but the most obvious deceptions. Politicians and advocacy groups use this to their advantage. It’s difficult to fact-check live, and much of fact-checking is on the web, not on the air.

Argument Culture:

By the 1990s, media had helped develop what one linguist termed the ‘Argument Culture’. By 2000, 40% of news and public affairs programming was devoted to talk shows, many involving staged debates with a penchant for increasing polarization and alarmism instead of Journalism’s mission of enlightenment. This narrowed the public discourse by appealing to extreme points of view. The shows tended to focus on topics where a good fight was to be had. Social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter have added to this polarization by organizing their sites in ways to separate us, making us more tribal, selling targeted advertising, and keeping users on their sites longer. Each person has their reality with their own set of facts.

Answer Culture:

By 2006, the way was given to Answer Culture. The news industry started building its audience by affirming preconceptions of an ideologically uniform audience rather than focusing on inquiry and reporting. The public dives into channels it tends to prefer, known as ‘filter bubbles’, and thus, our range of learning shrinks.

Who was W.D. Ross?

A 20th-century British philosopher who developed a moral framework based on the idea that our intuition can tell us what we ought to do and what our duties are. This framework can help journalists discover their ethical duties.

What are Prima Facie duties?

Ross’s basic idea is that there are several common-sense duties — prima facie duties — that a person is obligated to act on. Journalism scholar Christopher Meyer divides them into two types: Perfect and imperfect.

What are perfect duties?

• Strictly binding duties that must be done.

• Fidelity: Keep your promises

• Nonmaleficence: Avoid causing harm

• Reparation: Make up for any harm caused, particularly if it was intentional or negligent

• Formal Justice: Give people what they’ve legitimately earned

• Respect for persons, including oneself

What are imperfect duties?

• Duties that are strongly encouraged.

• Beneficence: Do what you can to improve the lives of others

• Gratitude: Show appreciation for what others have done for you

• Distributive Justice: Distribute social goods to benefit the disadvantaged in society 

• Honesty: Don’t mislead people

• Self-improvement: Work to develop your moral, intellectual, and physical qualities

How have journalists put these into practice?

• When reporting on sensitive topics, such as whistleblowing or exposing corruption, journalists often take steps to protect the identity of their sources. This is in line with the prima facie duty to minimize harm, ensuring that those who provide critical information are not subjected to retaliation.

• When errors are made, responsible journalists and outlets publish corrections or retractions, reflecting their commitment to truth. This shows that the duty to be truthful is a priority, even at the cost of reputation.

• Journalists adhere to codes of ethics, such as those from the Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ), which emphasize the duty of confidentiality. These codes recognize the importance of protecting sources to encourage the free flow of information and ensure the public’s right to know.

What is Meyer’s framework for ethical decision-making?

1. Start with an open mind: engage with others, get multiple perspectives

2. Get all the facts you can: Do some reporting! These include:

• Journalistic facts

• Professional facts

• Legal facts: Laws

• Social/Political facts

• Big-picture facts

These first two steps will let a journalist know quickly whether a problem is one of conflicting facts or conflicting duties.

3. Listen to what your gut is saying: intuition

4. Identify which perfect or imperfect duties are relevant and at stake

5. Figure out what kind of conflict you’re facing

Dilemma: For this, harm is likely to occur no matter what decision is made. How do you minimize it?

Distress: For this, you try to overcome whatever barriers to ethical action 

6. Brainstorm and analyze: discuss with others

7. Conclude, and try to reach a consensus

8. Try to minimize the harm your decision may cause

9. Look toward the future

A framework gives journalists a chance to consider all important factors surrounding a situation. It also provides journalists with evidence to better defend their decisions to people who disagree with them.

Flaws in storytelling:

• The story is missing identifiable characters: Sources become templates for the story, not real people

• Time in the story is frozen; lacks movement

• The story is designed for a single audience, not multiple

• It’s presented as a conversation among insiders

• It does not illuminate a greater meaning

• Little attempt is made to globalize the local or localize the global

• It’s predictable and formulaic

• It fails to take advantage of technology

Examples of formulaic news formats:

Formulaic news formats are structured ways of presenting information that follow a set pattern or formula, making it easier for journalists to create content quickly and ensuring consistency for audiences. The "5 Ws and H" (Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How): This classic news formula is used to ensure that all the basic information is covered in an article, especially for breaking news or factual reporting. It’s the foundation of many news stories, especially in hard news reporting.

When did infotainment start to fade? + Examples of infotainment:

Infotainment, the blending of information and entertainment in news programming, began to fade in the early 2000s due to several factors, but mainly the rise of online and digital news. A good example of infotainment is "The Daily Show with Jon Stewart" (1996–2015). Although it was a satirical comedy show, it blended news and entertainment, offering humorous commentary on current events, politics, and social issues. Jon Stewart used comedy and satire to engage the audience with serious topics, presenting news in a format that was both entertaining and informative.

What are some innovative methods for generating story ideas?

Thinking about who the audience is and what they need to know; Asking these questions in advance:

• What is the story really about?

• Who does this story or facts affect and how?

• Who has the information and who can put it into context?

• What is the best way to tell a story?

What is the stakeholder wheel method?

The Stakeholder Wheel Method is a tool used in strategic communication, public relations, and journalism to help organizations or journalists identify and analyze the key stakeholders involved in a particular issue or situation.  It helps communicators, journalists, and organizations understand the complexity of an issue and ensure that they manage their relationships and communication efforts in a strategic and informed manner.

What is Butch Ward’s dining table exercise?

Butch Ward's "Dining Table Exercise" is a tool used in journalism training and media ethics discussions to help reporters, editors, and news organizations navigate ethical dilemmas and decision-making processes in news coverage. The exercise is designed to illustrate the importance of considering multiple perspectives, especially when it comes to controversial or sensitive issues, and how these decisions might be perceived by various stakeholders.

What are the strengths of traditional news platforms (Print, broadcast, radio)?

Strong strengths include credibility, authority, in-depth coverage, audience loyalty, and a broad reach to the audience. Overall, it established common journalistic standards within every kind of media.

How have digital platforms applied elements of traditional news media and taken advantage of their strengths?

Digital platforms have effectively merged the strengths of traditional news media with the advantages of digital technology. They have applied the depth and investigative rigor of print journalism, the visual impact and immediacy of broadcast media, and the accessibility and portability of radio. By incorporating these elements and embracing the unique capabilities of digital media, such as interactivity, real-time updates, and global reach, digital platforms have created new and dynamic ways for audiences to consume news, making traditional formats more accessible, engaging, and adaptable in the digital age.

What is news as structured data? + Example:

Data points that tell a story;  Example: The website Politifact rates the veracity of statements by political figures on a meter from true to utterly false;  Each rating is a data point; Combined they can tell stories over time;  Can be searched and collated.

The three types of investigative journalism and what they are:

Original:

- Reporters themselves uncover and document activities that have been previously unknown to inform the public of events or circumstances that might affect their lives.

- This is the kind of investigative reporting that often results in official public investigations about the subject or activity exposed, a classic example of the press pushing public institutions on behalf of the public.

- It may involve tactics similar to police work, such as basic shoe-leather reporting, public records searches, use of informants, and even, in special circumstances, undercover work or surreptitious monitoring of activities.

Interpretative:

- Often involves the same original enterprise skills but takes the interpretation to a different level. 

- Interpretative reporting develops as the result of careful thought and analysis of an idea as well as the dogged pursuit of facts to bring together information in a new, more complete context that provides deeper public understanding.

- It usually involves more complex issues or sets of facts than a classic exposé.

- It reveals a new way of looking at something as well as new information about it.

Reporting on Investigations:

- In this case, the reporting develops from a discovery or leak of information from an official investigation already underway or in preparation by others, usually government agencies. 

- Reporting on investigations can be found wherever official investigators are at work. 

- Government investigators actively cooperate with reporters in these cases for many reasons: to affect budget appropriations, to influence potential witnesses, and to shape public opinion.

The four primary categories of guidelines in the Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics:

1. Seek truth and report it

2. Minimize harm

3. Act independently

4. Be accountable and transparent