Psychology - Approaches PMT

Wundt and introspection

a means of learning about one’s own currently ongoing mental 2 states or processes. Introspective knowledge is often held to be more immediate or direct than sensory knowledge.

Wundt isolated conscious thoughts into basic structures of thoughts, processes and images, in a process called structuralism.

Behaviourism - Skinner and Watson

• Skinner disagreed with the subjective nature of introspection, in which the findings differed greatly from individual to individual, making it difficult to establish general laws and unifying principles of behaviour and cognition.

• Therefore, in the 1930s, Skinner’s idea of radical behaviourism (that private events could be measured and quantified in the same way as observable behaviour) was tested using the laboratory experiment method of research.

• This allowed for the objective measurement of observable behaviour, providing reliable data through controlling and eliminating the effects of extraneous and confounding variables, by using highly controlled conditions.

• This marked the beginning of Psychology as a scientific discipline

cognitive approach

With the invention of the computer in the 1960s, cognitive psychology flourised as psychologists had a metaphor for the functions and workings of the mind i.e. the ‘computer analogy’

Social Learning Theory

Bandura also agreed with behaviourist principles (i.e. that behaviour is learnt through experience) but argued that these principles are better applied to a social context.

biological approach

Advances in technology, particularly with brain scanning techniques in the 1970s, allowed psychologists to objectively observe and measure the biological basis of behaviour.

Assumptions of Behaviorism

• The behaviourist approach is an approach to explaining behaviour which suggests that all behaviour is acquired and maintained through classical and operant conditioning. Hence, only behaviour which can be objectively measured and observed is studied, as demonstrated by Skinner’s Box. This is due to the founders of behaviourism, Watson and Skinner, disagreeing with the subjective nature of Wundt’s introspective methods, and the inability to formulate general laws and universal principles based on his observations.

• From a behaviourist perspective, the basic laws governing learning are the same across both non-humans and humans. Therefore, non-human animals can replace humans in behaviourist experimental research.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning which occurs through associations made between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus. Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces the unconditioned response (UCR). During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the UCS, producing an UCR. After conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, producing the conditioned response.

example of classical conditioning

• Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could be conditioned to salivate upon hearing a bell, as follows:

1. Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) produced an unconditioned response (salivation).

2. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus was repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus (a bell), to produce the same unconditioned response of salivation.

3. An association was made between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus.

4. After conditioning, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus, producing the conditioned response of salivation.

other processes in classical conditioning

• Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus, so the conditioned response becomes extinct/disappears.

• Spontaneous recovery occurs when the individual carries out the conditioned response some time after extinction has occurred.

• Generalisation occurs when slight changes in the conditioned stimulus, such as different pitches of the bell used in Pavlov’s experiment, still produces the same conditioned response.

operant conditioning

A type of learning where behaviour is acquired and maintained based on its consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observed behaviour being repeated, whilst punishment (an unpleasant consequence of behaviour) decreases this likelihood.

what are the two types of reinforcement

positive and negative

positive reinforcement

occurs when we carry out a behaviour to receive a reward e.g. completing homework to receive praise from a teacher

negative reinforcement

occurs when we carry out a behaviour to avoid negative consequences e.g. completing homework to avoid being given a detention

skinners box

Skinner demonstrated, using a rat, the mechanisms of positive and negative reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement was shown when the rats pressed down on a lever to receive food as a reward, and subsequently learnt to repeat this action to increase their rewards.

Negative reinforcement was shown when the rat learnt to press down on the lever to avoid the unpleasant consequence of an electric shock.

evaluation of behaviourism - strengths

• Scientific Rigour:
  Behaviourists use highly controlled laboratory experiments to objectively measure observable behaviour. This reduces confounding variables, increases reliability and internal validity, and enhances psychology’s scientific credibility.

• Real-Life Applications:
  Insights from classical and operant conditioning have led to practical treatments, such as token economy systems used in prisons to encourage desirable behaviour. This shows the approach’s positive real-world impact.

evaluation of behaviourism - limitations

• Environmental Determinism:
  Behaviourism assumes behaviour is fully determined by past reinforcement and conditioning, ignoring free will, emotion, and cognition. This makes it less suitable for explaining complex human behaviour compared to theories like social learning theory.

• Ethical Concerns in Research:
  Early experiments (e.g. Skinner’s rats, Little Albert) often breached ethical guidelines by causing harm or distress. Though unethical by modern standards, some argue that the scientific benefits of understanding learning processes may outweigh the ethical costs.

assumptions of the Social Learning Theory

• Social learning theory (SLT) suggests that learning occurs both directly, through classical and operant conditioning, and indirectly, through vicarious reinforcement.

• Assumes that learning occurs through the following stages: An observer identifies themselves with a desirable role model. This role model displays or models a specific behaviour, which is imitated by the observer. The likelihood that the observed behaviour will be imitated is increased if the role model is seen to be ‘vicariously reinforced’ or rewarded. Therefore, the consequences of the observed behaviour are more important than observing the behaviour alone.

role model

A person with whom the observer identifies with. The role model is usually attractive, has high social status, is of a similar age and the same gender to the observer. This model can exert influence indirectly by not being physically present in the environment but, for example, seen in the media.

identification

The process by which an observer relates to/ associates themselves with a role model and aspires to become more like that role model.

vicarious reinforcement

A type of indirect learning which occurs when an observer sees their role model being rewarded for displaying a certain behaviour. The observer is then motivated to imitate this behaviour, in an effort to receive the same reward.

mediational processes

Cognitive processes which mediate/intervene between stimulus and response. The 4 mediational processes are: Attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study

36 boys and 36 girls, aged between 3 and 6 years old, were tested. There were three experimental groups, 3 with the first being exposed to real-life aggressive models, a second group observing the same models displaying aggressive acts on film and a third group viewing an aggressive cartoon character.

The researchers found that the children who’d observed an aggressive role model behaved more aggressively themselves towards the Bobo doll compared to the non-aggressive role model control group. Links can be made to the process of social learning theory.

evaluation of SLT - strength

Acknowledges Human Cognition:
Unlike behaviourism, SLT recognises mediational processes — the thoughts, decisions, and awareness that influence behaviour. This makes it a more complete and realistic explanation of human behaviour than models that ignore internal mental processes.

evaluation of SLT - limitations

• Biological Differences Ignored:
  Bandura’s Bobo Doll study overlooks biological factors, such as testosterone, which may explain why boys showed more aggression than girls. This shows that SLT’s environmental determinism neglects the role of biology and hormones in behaviour, making it an incomplete explanation for gender differences.

• Demand Characteristics & Low Validity:
  The Bobo Doll experiment may lack internal validity because the doll was designed to be hit, so children might have acted aggressively due to demand characteristics (the “Please-U effect”). It also lacks mundane realism, as such behaviour may not reflect real-life aggression. This limits the generalisability of Bandura’s findings.

assumption of the Cognitive approach

• Assumes that the scientific and objective study of internal mental processes is possible. However, as these private processes cannot be directly observed, cognitive psychologists formulate conclusions of their workings, through making inferences, based upon observable behaviours.

• Therefore, much of the work of cognitive psychologists is the indirect measurement of cognition.

• The cognitive approach sees mental processes as being separate from the brain.

• Cognitive psychologists use computer models and theoretical models to better understand and model cognitive processes, through the use of analogies.

the ‘computer analogy’ and theoretical model

• An example of a theoretical model would be the working memory model, which is a diagrammatic representation of short-term memory, made up of the following cognitive components, through which information flows: Central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and the episodic buffer.

• Analogies can also be made between the workings of a computer and the functions of the human brain. For example, both contain a series of 3 processes: input, the use of a processor (e.g. the brain) and the production of a comprehensible output (e.g. computer code or human language).

• The invention of the computer in the 1960s was crucial in the development of cognitive psychology, as psychologists now had a metaphor for the mind.

schemas

• Schemas are ‘packages’ of ideas and knowledge about a certain person, place, object or time. They are generated through experience, becoming more sophisticated through time.

• They also act as mental frameworks, providing us with ‘mental shortcuts’ so we can process large volumes of data quickly and efficiently, thus avoiding sensory overload.

• However, since schemas are ‘pre-conceived’, they may lead to perceptual distortions due to having an already established mental framework e.g. James Potter et al (2009) showing that when watching TV, “although viewers may share the same story schema, 5 they appear to make different judgements on the schema elements, and hence their judgements about violence vary”.

the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

• Cognitive neuroscience is defined as ‘the scientific field concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes’

evaluation of the cognitive approach - strengths

• Scientific Methods and Rigour:
  The rise of cognitive neuroscience has made psychology more scientifically credible, using objective, reliable methods such as PET, CT, MRI, and fMRI scans to observe the brain’s activity directly.

• Practical Applications:
  Research into cognitive processes has real-world uses, such as improving technology design, human-computer interaction, and education (e.g. predicting reading ability through phonological testing). This shows its growing practical impact.

• Soft Determinism:
  The cognitive approach recognises that people can think, reason, and make choices within the limits of their knowledge. This soft determinism allows for human agency, offering a more realistic and flexible view of behaviour than the behaviourist model.

evaluation of the cognitive approach - limitations

Overly Abstract Concepts:
Cognitive psychology often relies on inference, using schemas and models to explain mental processes that can’t be directly observed. This makes some concepts too theoretical and lacking in empirical evidence, limiting their practical application

assumptions of the Biological approach

• According to the biological approach, humans are biological organisms made up of physiological processes.

• Therefore, all thoughts, ideas and cognitive processes must be biological in origin. This means that the mind ‘lives’ within the brain, and is not separate (as viewed by the cognitive approach).

• The actions of genes, hormones, neurotransmitters and neurochemical mechanisms must be understood in order to explain behaviour fully.

the biological basis of behaviour

• Heritability coefficients can be used to quantify the genetic or biological basis of a certain characteristic. For example, IQ is said to have a heritability coefficient of 0.5 (Plomin), and so the influence of nature (genetics) and nurture (the environment) are equal.

• An individual’s genotype is their genetic make-up, where a gene is a short section of DNA coding for specific proteins.

• An individual’s phenotype is the physical expression of their genotype.

• Therefore, the interaction between the phenotype and the environment results in individual behaviour.

• Two people may have the same genotype but different phenotypes. This may be due to personal choices they’ve made to alter their appearance, such as dying their hair or piercing their ears, or due to the influence of epigenetics.

• Epigenetics is a change in gene expression, without altering an individual’s genetic make-up. Epigenetic markers, such as DNA methylation and histone tail modification, can be left on DNA through exposure to certain environmental factors, such as specific diets and pollution.

natural selection

• Natural selection = The mechanism of evolution. The theory suggests that any genetically-determined behaviour, which gives the individual a selective advantage (increasing their chances of surviving, reproducing and passing down this beneficial allele onto their offspring), will be present in future generations.

• This is due to the genetic transmission of ‘beneficial’ characteristics from one generation to the next (i.e. heredity).

• Examples of genetically-determined behaviours with a selective advantage include: avoiding fire and deep water (these are the prepared stimuli suggested by Seligman’s theory of learned preparedness), certain individuals having longer necks (Lamarck’s example of an animal who is better adapted to reaching and eating leaves at the tops of trees) and specific cows producing more milk (increasing the chance of survival of their young).

evolution

The process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or behavioural traits

evaluation for the biological approach - strengths

• Practical Applications – Drug Development:
  Understanding biological mechanisms behind mental disorders has enabled the creation of psychoactive drugs (e.g. dopamine antagonists like Chlorpromazine for schizophrenia). These treatments are non-invasive, time-efficient, and require minimal effort from patients compared to therapies like CBT. This demonstrates the real-world benefits of the biological approach.

• Scientific Rigour and Methods:
  The approach uses objective, reliable methods such as EEG, PET, and fMRI scans to study the neural basis of behaviour. Family, twin, and adoption studies also contribute to understanding heritability and genetic influence, enhancing the scientific credibility of psychology.

evaluation of the biological approach - limitations

• Biological Determinism:
  Suggesting that behaviour is entirely caused by genes, hormones, and neurochemistry removes the notion of free will, leading to ethical and social concerns. For example, identifying a “criminal gene” could result in diminished moral responsibility, legal complications, and discrimination in areas like employment or insurance. This highlights the real-world dangers of strict determinism.

• Nature vs. Nurture in Twin Studies:
  Higher concordance rates in MZ twins than in DZ twins are often attributed to genetics, but this overlooks the influence of shared environments and similar upbringing. Therefore, the biological approach overestimates genetic influence and underestimates environmental and social factors, suggesting an interactionist perspective (nature + nurture) is more accurate.

assumptions of the psychodynamic approach

• Freud adopted the use of psychic determinism = This is the idea that all behaviour is caused by unconscious internal conflicts, over which we have no control.

• There are 3 levels of consciousness: The conscious, preconscious and unconscious.

• We are only aware of our conscious. Contents of the preconscious are revealed through parapraxes, slips of the tongue and dreaming. Therefore, since we are completely unaware of our unconscious, inferences of its workings can be made through the psychoanalysis (analysing symbols in dreams) and psychotherapy.

• The unconscious stores our biological drives and instincts (e.g. hunger, thirst and sex) as well as upsetting and disturbing thoughts repressed from the conscious.

Freud’s tripartite personality

Freud viewed the personality as made up of three components i.e. ‘tripartite’. These are the Id, ego and superego.

id

innate part of the personality, and operates on the pleasure principle. Therefore, the Id constantly demands instant gratification (e.g. to fulfill innate, biological instincts, such as hunger and thirst) and so is in conflict with the superego.

ego

Formed during the first 3 years of life, and operates on the reality principle. The ego helps to resolve the conflict between the id and the superego through the use of defence mechanisms (repression, denial and displacement). The strength of the unconscious depends upon how efficiently the ego resolves this conflict.

superego

Formed at the end of the phallic stage, and operates on the morality principle. This contains the child’s internalised sense of right and wrong, based upon their same-sex parent. The superego is in constant conflict with the Id.

the psychosexual stages

• Freud adopted a nomothetic approach by suggesting that there a series of developmental stages through which all children progress, and in the same order.

• Each stage is characterised by a conflict, which must be resolved to pass to the next stage, apart from latency.

• Failure to do so results in ‘fixation’ at that stage, where dysfunctional behaviours associated with that stage are carried forwards to adulthood.

e.g. anal phase, oral phase, phallic phase etc

evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - strengths

Practical Applications:
Freud’s theories underpin psychotherapy and psychoanalysis, which remain influential in modern treatments. For example, Functional Analytic Cognitive Therapy (FECT) builds on psychodynamic principles to improve client–therapist relationships and interpersonal functioning. This shows the enduring therapeutic value of Freud’s ideas, especially for mental health conditions like depression.

evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - limitations

• Unconscious Concepts:
  Since the unconscious mind cannot be directly observed or measured, Freud’s theories lack falsifiability and scientific credibility (as argued by Karl Popper). This makes the approach unscientific and pseudoscientific, damaging psychology’s status as an empirical discipline.

• Idiographic Methods / Case Studies:
  Freud’s theories were based on subjective case studies (e.g. Little Hans), which lack generalisability and ecological validity. His qualitative, interpretative data are prone to researcher bias, reducing the reliability and objectivity of his conclusions.

• Psychic Determinism:
  Freud claimed all behaviour stems from unconscious conflicts between the id, ego, and superego, meaning humans have no free will. This makes behaviour overly determined and subjective, contrasting with the more balanced determinism of other approaches (e.g. soft determinism in cognitive psychology). As a result, it fails to align with scientific investigation standards.

assumptions of the humanistic approach

• Assumes that we all have free will and are ‘mistresses’ and ‘masters’ of our own development, so we can ignore the influence of internal and external factors on our behaviour.

• Sees self-actualisation, as achieved by being the top level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, as a crucial part of being human.

• Due to having free will, we also have to ability to progress through this hierarchy of needs and better ourselves.

the self and the ideal self

• The ‘self’ is a term to describe all the ideas and values we have about ourselves, including perceptions of our abilities.

• The ‘ideal self’ describes our perception of the best version of ourselves

incongruence

• When there is too large a gap between the self and the ideal self, we experience incongruence. The consequent negative feelings of low self-worth and low self-esteem prevent us from progressing through Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and so we cannot achieve self-actualisation.

self-actualisation

•  When there is little or no gap between the self and the ideal self, then we have achieved congruence, allowing us to progress up the hierarchy, with the aim of achieving selfactualisation.

• Self-actualisation refers to the innate desire we all have to become the best version of ourselves, through personal and psychological growth i.e. achieving one’s full potential

Rogerian therapy and conditions of worth

• Rogerian therapy aims to reduce the gap between the self and the ideal self, thus increasing increasing the likelihood of achieving congruence and subsequently, self-actualisation.

• According to Rogers and Maslow, conditions such as low self-esteem and low self-worth originate in childhood, where adults restrict the love they show towards their children, by imposing conditions of worth e.g. “I will be proud of you only if you achieve top grades at school”. This represents a lack of unconditional positive regard.

• Rogerian therapy views a good therapist as being open, genuine, empathic and most importantly, providing the unconditional positive regard which the patient most likely lacked during childhood.

• These therapies view patients as ‘experts’ of their conditions, and so they are encouraged to arrive at their own solutions to these problems, with the help of a therapist.

evaluation of the humanistic approach - strengths

• Practical Application to Therapy:
  Rogers’ client-centred therapy has had a major influence on counselling psychology in both the UK and USA. It emphasises free will, self-improvement, and personal growth, focusing on helping clients find solutions to current issues rather than revisiting the past (as in Freud’s methods). However, it is less effective for severe disorders such as schizophrenia or major depression.

• Holistic Approach:
  Humanism adopts a holistic perspective, viewing behaviour through the lens of the whole person and their subjective experience, rather than breaking it down into parts. This contrasts with the reductionism of other approaches (e.g. biological, cognitive, and behaviourist), offering a more positive and person-centred alternative.

evaluation of the humanistic approach - limitations

• Untestable and Subjective Concepts:
  Ideas like self-actualisation and congruence are difficult to define or measure objectively due to individual differences and the lack of universal criteria. This reliance on subjective self-report reduces scientific credibility, similar to the psychodynamic approach.

• Culture-Bound Explanation:
  Concepts such as self-actualisation and personal growth reflect Western individualist values focused on the self, making humanism culturally biased. In collectivist cultures, where community and group harmony take precedence, these ideas may seem selfish or less relevant, limiting the cross-cultural validity of the approach.

comparison of approaches - nature vs nurture

behaviourism: Behaviour is learnt through experience i.e. stimulusresponse links

SLT: Behaviour is learnt through the observation and imitation of an identified role model, within a social context.

cognitive: Babies are born with a select few innate schemas (e.g. sucking) but develop other sophisticated schemas over time.

biological: The activity of genes, hormones and neurotransmitte rs is inherited/ innate. However, epigenetics (affected by external factors) also affects gene expression.

humanism: Nurture — A lack of unconditional positive regard in childhood, due to implemented conditions of worth, leads to low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness.

comparison of the approaches - holism vs reductionism

behaviourism: Environmental Reductionism i.e. all behaviour is explained in terms of simple stimulusresponse links.

SLT: Reductionist view that behaviour can be explained in terms of classical conditioning, operant conditioning and vicarious reinforcement.

cognitive: Reductionist view that behaviour can be explained in terms of the influence of schemas.

biological: Biological Reductionism — Behaviour can only be explained by the actions of genes, hormones and neurotransmitters

humanistic: Holism — The whole, subjective human experience is used to study behaviour, without formulating general laws

comparison of the approaches - free will vs determinism

behaviourism: Environmental Determinism — All behaviour is the result of classical and operant conditioning, where we have no conscious insight into our behaviour.

SLT: Reciprocal Determinism — We operate on the environment, but the environment in turn operates on us.

cognitive: Soft Determinism — We are free to make conscious decisions and reason within the limits of what we know/ our cognitive system.

biological: Biological Determinism — All behaviour is caused by internal, biological forces over which we have no control.

humanistic: Free Will — Humans are free to reject the external forces that operate on us, because we are ‘masters’/‘mistr esses’ of our own development.

comparison of the approaches - explanation of mental disorders

behaviourism: Caused by associations made between the unconditioned and neutral stimulus (classical conditioning) and maintenance through operant conditioning e.g. avoidance behaviour in OCD is negatively reinforced. 

SLT: Caused by the observation and imitation of inappropriate role models, using the 4 mediational processes (attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation). The role model is seen as particularly desirable.

cognitive: Faulty schemas generated through specific experiences, leading to perceptual errors and sensory stimuli distortions. 

biological: There may be candidate genes for specific mental health disorders and criminality e.g. CHD-13 (criminality) and 5HT1-D beta (OCD). These genes then influence neurotransmitte r and hormone production.

humanistic: A lack of unconditional positive regard in childhood, due to conditions of worth imposed by parents, leads to incongruence and an inability to selfactualise.