Chapter 7 - Gender Identity

Sex

Biological and anatomical difference between males and females

-Primary Sex Characteristics - Genitalia

-Secondary Sex Characteristics - Breasts, hips, etc

Gender

Culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males found in the meanings, beliefs and practices associated with ‘femineity’ and ‘masculinity’ 

-Socially or culturally constructued

-Gender role and gender identity

-has important consequence in everyday life (education, occupation, etc)

Sexism

Subordination of one sex based on the assumed superiority of other sex

Elements;

-Negative attitudes

-Stereotypical beliefs that reinforce, complement or justify prejudice and discrimination

Sexism Examples

-Undervaluing women’s labour

-Pornography

-The “Glass Ceiling” - restricting access of women to top levels of power

Patriarchy

Hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men

Gender Stratification in Historical Perspective

-Hunting-gathering societies

-Horticultural or Pastoral Societies

-Agrarian Societies

-Industrial Societies 

-Postindustrial Societies

Hunting and Gathering

Basic Theme - Men hunt for game, women gather oats and berries

-Relatively equitable relationship exists

-Women are full economic partners with men; little social stratification

Horticultural and Pastoral

Basic Theme - People were able to grow their own food

Pastoral - Domestication of large animals to provide food

-Herding primarily done by men, and women contribute relatively to subsistence production in such societies 

-Women’s economic contribution, compatible with children, was vital

-Primary value was their ability to bear children

-Polygyny - Contributed to power differences; brideswealth payment makes women into property

-Fairly high degree of gender equality exists

Agrarian Societies

Theme - Gender inequality and male dominance become institutionalized

-Economy is agriculturally based

-Men are foodbearers, women are caregivers and childbearers

Industrial Societies

Factory or mechanized production replaced agriculture as the major economic base

-As societies industrialize, status of women declines further

-Endangered cult of domesticity or cult of the true womanhood; women are natural keepers of the domestic sphere

Effect; Economic and political subordination of women 

Gender Division of Labour in Industrial Societies 

Men;

-Public

-Breadwinner

-Factory/office work

Women;

-Private

-Domestic labour

-Homemakers

-Care of Children

Postindustrial Societies

Technology supports a service and information based economy, formal education is essential

Effects on the Family;

-Two earner families is the norm, with more adult women in the labour force, finding time to care for children her partner and aging parents as well as to meet the demands of workplace strain in women’s lives

-Issue of female headed, single parent families - poverty and stress 

Contemporary Gender Inequality

-Gender division of paid work

-Gender wage gap

-pay equity and employment equity

-Paid work and family work

Gender Division of Paid Work

Gender Segregated Work - The concentration of women and men in different occupations, jobs and places of work

-Women continue to be more represented in clerical work, while men in the natural sciences, engineering and mathematics

Labour Mark Segregation - Division of jobs into categories with distinct working conditions results in women having separate and unequal jobs

-Racial gendered segregation has not changed, occupational gender segregation is part of the overall stratification system in Canada 

Effects of Gender Division of Paid Work

Effects;

-Women/Men are excluded from certain opportunities (ex, male nurse)

-Once broken into a gendered occupation, there are more rewards

-By 1999, 50% of dentists/doctors were women, dropped to 35% of managers being wom

Gender Wage Gap

Disparity between women’s and men’s earning

-in 2002, women made 80% of men

• Marital status makes a difference. Single, never married women made 96% of men while married women made 77%

Gender Wage Gap Stats

-In 2018 female employers aged 25-54 earned 13% less per hour than men

-Gender gap has narrowed by $1.04 or 5.57% since 1998 when it was $5.17 (19%)

Pay Equity and Employment Equity

Pay Equity - Reflects the belief that wages ought to reflect the worth of a job, not sex or race of the worker

Employment Equity - Strategy to eliminate the effects of discrimination and to fully open the competition for job opportunities to those who have been excluded historically 

In areas of recruitment, selection, training, promotion, layoffs, etc 

-Target of these strategies are visible minorities, persons with disabilities and women

Perspectives on Gender Stratification

-Functionalist Perspective

-Conflict Perspective

-Feminist Perspective

Functionalist Perspective on Gender Stratification

Importance of traditional gender rules

-Division of family roles will ensure that important societal tasks will be fulfilled and the provision for family members

-Again, the instrumental and expressive role

Variation - Human Capital Model

-Human capital acquired by education and job training and can be measured in terms of the return on the investment

-When women leave paid work to have children, they lose elements of human capital. When they return to paid work they have less human capital

-Problem is it does not address the problem of pay inequity between men and women 

Conflict Perspective on Gender Stratification

Men still hold the sources of power

-Resources of Men; Education, strength, receive more in wages than women

Resources of Women; Sexual resources, companionship, emotional support of others

Feminist Perspective on Gender Stratification

Belief that women and men are equal and that they should be valued equally and have equal rights

Goal; to equally value the paid work of men and women as well as their unpaid, family work

Five Feminist Sub-Perspectives

Liberal - Gender equality linked to equality of opportunity, to change laws/customs of inequality

Radical - Male domination causes all kinds of domination, Source; Patriarchy and Biology

Socialist - Men/Women exploited in capitalism, women more exploited

Antiracist/Multicultural - Beyond middle class liberal feminism, focus; women of minority, groups with dual inequality

Postmodernist - Discourses are all totally social constructions, sex is as much of a social construct as is gender. No such thing as a “woman”

Gender Issues in the Future

Key Successes

-Equity laws passed

-Sexual harassment as criminal

Future

-Pay gap should continue to decline

-More men to do family work