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empirical data
evidence gathered by observation or experimentation, in other words, factual evidence. political scientists use this to make hypotheses and inferences about the world.
normative data
evidence that is conceptualized data, in other words, norms, or opinions based on data. It is usually used in political science to assess what is "usual" in a population.
quantitative analysis
A large number of cases that allows the researcher to analyze the data through the use of statistical techniques
qualitative analysis
A small number of cases, which is much more limited in terms of statistical evidence, but tends to be more thorough and detailed in terms of subjective analysis.
Human Development Index (HDI)
An index created by the United Nations. Summarizes measures of average achievement in key dimensions in human development (like schooling, life expectancy, and income)
Gini Index
Shows income inequality within a country
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Market value of a goods and services produced
Freedom House
A non-governmental organization that conducts research on the levels of "freedom" across the world and reports it annually. Their research takes into consideration a number of factors, such as the extent of political rights, freedom of the press and the strength of the rule of law to determine on a scale of 1 (most free) - 7 (least free) the level of freedom of each country.
Transparency International
A non-governmental organization that is engaged in fighting corruption and promoting integrity and accountability across the world. The most important data they provide is the annual Corruption Perception Index. This organization investigates corruption in the public sector, in the private sector, and in the poltiical process
Failed/Fragile States Index
This measurement provides an annual ranking of countries based on their perceived levels of social, economic and political stability. The FSI measure is important to indicate which countries are at risk of collapsing due to myriad of factors. The factors taken into consideration are poverty, corruption, inequality, weak governance, natural disasters, among others. The scale ranges from 0 (countries that are least at risk) to 120 (countries that are most at risk)
The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI)
Measures the perceived levels of public sector corruption in different countries. It ranks countries based on how corrupt their public sectors are perceived to be.
Supranational Organizations
example: the European Union (EU)
Citizen Organizations
non-governmental groups formed by individuals who come together around shared interests or causes. They aim to promote specific issues, advocate for policy changes, or provide services to communities without being part of the government structure.
institutions
the established structures and organizations that shape and govern political systems. They provide the framework for how power is exercised, decisions are made, and policies are implemented within a society.
legitimacy
the acceptance and recognition of a government or political system by its citizens as having the right to rule and exercise authority.
political systems
the structures and processes through which a society makes collective decisions, exercises power, and governs itself.
presidential system
a form of government where there is a separation between the executive and legislative branches, with an elected president serving as both head of state and head of government
semi-presidential system
combines elements of both parliamentary and presidential systems. It features an elected president as head of state alongside a prime minister who is responsible for the day-to-day governance.
parliamentary
Democratic form of government in which the legislative is in charge of the executive. The Head of Government (usually called Prime Minister) is chosen by the legislative.
bureaucracy
system of administration used to facilitate the execution of laws. Provides divisions to properly fulfill its tasks.
head of state
represents a country symbolically both domestically and internationally. They embody national unity, perform ceremonial duties, and often serve as a figurehead for the country.
head of government
the person who holds the highest executive authority in a country's government. They are responsible for leading the day-to-day operations of the government, implementing policies, and making decisions on behalf of the country.
civil liberties
fundamental rights and freedoms granted to individuals by law, typically protected by a constitution or bill of rights. These liberties include freedom of speech, religion, assembly, press, and privacy
civil rights
protections against discrimination based on characteristics such as race, gender, religion, or nationality. They ensure equal treatment under the law for all individuals within a society
democratization
the process of transitioning a government or society from an authoritarian or non-democratic system to one that is democratic, where power is held by the people and there are free and fair elections.
political and social cleavages
deep divisions within a society based on political, social, economic, or cultural factors. These divisions can create conflicts and shape the political landscape of a country.
Forces that Impact Political Participation
the various factors and influences that shape an individual's level of engagement in political activities, such as voting, joining political parties, or participating in protests.
regimes
the set of rules, institutions, and practices that govern political power in a country. They determine how decisions are made, who holds power, and how it is exercised
political culture
the attitudes, beliefs, values, norms, and expectations that shape citizens' behavior towards politics within a particular country or society.
civil society
the space outside of the government and business sectors where individuals come together voluntarily to pursue common interests, advocate for their rights, and engage in social activities.
proportional representation
refers to a voting system in which the number of seats won by a political party refer to the number of votes they got for an election.
plurality system
an electoral system in which the candidate who receives the most votes wins, regardless of whether they have obtained an absolute majority.
majority system
an electoral system in which a candidate must receive more than 50% of the votes to win. If no candidate achieves this in the first round, a runoff election may be held between the top two candidates
interest groups
consists of organizations that attempt to shape public policy and advocate for certain issues.
corporatism
ideology that advocates for a creation of a society that works in collaboration between the government, businesses and labor.
citizen participation
the involvement of individuals in the political process, such as voting, attending public meetings, or engaging in activism.
corporate interest group systems
political systems where interest groups are organized into a few major associations that work closely with the government in decision-making processes
pluralist interest group systems
political systems where multiple interest groups compete for influence and power, with no single group dominating the decision-making process.
proportional representation
an electoral system in which seats in a legislative body are allocated based on the proportion of votes each political party receives.
single-member district
an electoral system in which each geographic district elects only one representative to a legislative body.
free trade
the exchange of goods and services between countries without restrictions or barriers such as tariffs or quotas. It promotes economic growth by allowing countries to specialize in producing what they are most efficient at.
globalization
the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of countries through the exchange of goods, services, information, and ideas on a global scale.
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
an international organization that aims to promote global economic stability and provide financial assistance to member countries facing economic crises
international organizations
formal institutions composed of multiple states or actors that work together to address global issues or promote cooperation among member nations.
Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
large companies that operate in multiple countries, conducting business activities across national borders.
supranational organizations
international institutions that have authority over member states, making decisions that affect all members. They often have the power to create and enforce laws, regulations, and policies.
United Nations (UN)
an international organization founded in 1945 with the goal of promoting peace, security, development, and human rights worldwide through collective action by its member states.
World Trade Organization (WTO)
an international organization that deals with global trade rules among nations, aiming to ensure fair and predictable trade practices.
sovereignty
the supreme authority and power of a state to govern itself without interference from external forces.
the state's legitimacy to exercise power
A government's authority derives from
state
independent political entities with defined territories, permanent populations, recognized sovereignty by other states, and functioning governments.
nation
large group of people who share common characteristics such as language, culture, history, or ethnicity. It refers to a sense of identity and belonging among its members
illiberal democracy/hybrid regime
an authoritarian regime in which elections are held, but elected officials often use the electoral process to keep themselves in power. In other words it's an authoritarian regime where elements of "democracy" are present
independent judiciary
a branch of government that is separate from other branches (such as the executive) and has the authority to interpret laws impartially. It acts as a check on potential abuses of power by ensuring fair trials and upholding constitutional rights.
rule of law
the principle that all individuals and institutions are subject to and accountable to the law, which is fairly applied and enforced. It ensures that no one is above the law.
democratic consolidation
the process by which a newly established democracy becomes more stable and institutionalized over time. It involves strengthening democratic institutions, ensuring the rule of law, and fostering a culture of democratic values among citizens.
democratization
the process of transitioning a government or society from an authoritarian or non-democratic system to one that is democratic, where power is held by the people and there are free and fair elections
democratic backslide
the gradual erosion or reversal of democratic principles and institutions within a country. It involves a decline in political rights, civil liberties, and the rule of law.
first democratic wave
a period in history, mainly during the 19th and early 20th centuries, when many countries transitioned from authoritarian rule to democratic systems.
PRI (Partido Revolucionario Institucional)
a Mexican political party that dominated Mexican politics for much of the 20th century. It was known for its authoritarian rule and control over various branches of government.
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