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nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.
natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
levels of analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.
cognitive psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection.
humanistic psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth
psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.
social-cultural psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.
personality psychology
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in workplaces.
human factors psychology
an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.
positive psychology
the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
SQ3R
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
environment
every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.
genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.
genome
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.
identical twins (monozygotic twins)
twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
fraternal twins (dizygotic twins)
twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.
molecular genetics
the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.
heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).
epigenetics
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.
mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.
male mating preferences
youthful appearance, healthy, fertile, small waist, smooth skin; child bearing
female mating preferences
mature, dominant, bold, and affluent men, with a potential for long-term mating and investment in their joint offspring
sexual response cycle
the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson—excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
refractory period
a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.
sexual dysfunction
a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.
estrogens
sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.
testosterone
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.
gender
the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female.
gender roles
a set of expected behaviors for males or for females about a social position, and defining how those in the position ought to behave.
gender identity
our sense of being male or female.
social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
gender typing
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
transgender
an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex.
X chromosome
the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
Y chromosome
the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.
puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.
primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.
secondary sex characteristics
nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.
sexual transmitted infections
infections spread from person to person through sexual contact
sexual orientation
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation).
Consciousness
our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment
Cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
Blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
Parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously
Sequential processing
processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems
Selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
Inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
Change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness
Choice blindness
failing to detect a mismatch in your original choice
Sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
entrainment
the process of synchronizing a biological rhythm to an environmental stimulus
EEG
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
Beta waves
smaller and faster brain waves, typically indicating mental activity
Alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
NREM
encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
stage 1
A transition stage between wake and sleep, can experience hallucinations
stage 2
stage of sleep with sleep spindles and K complexes
sleep stage 3
stage of sleep with large slow delta waves, hard to wake
REM
describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur
Sleep Cycle
a period of sleep lasting about 90 minutes and including one or more stages of NREM sleep, followed by REM sleep
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that responds to light-sensitive retinal proteins; causes pineal gland to increase or decrease production of melatonin, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
microsleep
a very short period of involuntary sleep that occurs while a person appears to be awake
theories of sleep
brain recovery from the days efforts, time to clear the mind of useless information, adaptive process to keep us out of danger at night, hibernation (conserve energy) or sleeping simply to dream.
effects of sleep deprivation
Diminished productivity, irritability, fatigue. Weight increase (ghrelin & cortisol increase, leptin decrease). Immune system suppression. Slows reaction time and increases errors
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
REM sleep behavior disorder
a neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out dreams
somnambulism
the condition of walking or performing some other activity without awakening; also known as sleepwalking
Lucid dream
people become aware that they are dreaming and can control the dream's content
Freud
believed dreams served to explore repressed thoughts and feelings. idea of manifest (surface) and latent (deeper meaning) content
Jung
believed dreams communicated emotions and archetypal symbols (birds=freedom, dogs=loyalty)
Cartwright
believed dreams were tightly connected to the day and solved problems by giving us experience or practice in dream
Health psychology
a subfield of psychology that explores the impact of psychological, behavioral, and cultural factors on health and wellness
Psychoneuroimmunology
the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health
Stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging
Stressors
events that cause a stress reaction
Approach and avoidance motives
the drive to move toward (approach) or away from (avoid) a stimulus
