Psychology unit 4

Learning

A change in behavior due to experience
FRQ; Examples must mention both the change in behavior & the experience that caused it.

Habituation(in the brain)

Simple form of adaptive learning where an organism stops paying attention to stimuli that are often repeated and don't signal anything important

Classical Conditioning

The learning of involuntary emotional &/or physiological reactions through involuntary association.

(Ivan) Pavlov's Dogs

Founded Classical Conditioning.
Used a bell, food, and salivation. The dog would get food and salivate and then would ring the bell and the dog wouldn't salivate. The dog would then be given both the bell and food at the same time. The dog makes an involuntary association and salivates to the sound of the bell.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US or UCS)

A natural/unlearned stimulus that effects a natural/reflexive/involuntary response. Ex. Food

Unconditioned response (Ur or UCR)

The natural/reflexive/involuntary reaction (emotional &/or physiological) Ex. Salivation

Neutral stimulus (NS)

Prior to pairing/association, the NS does not elicit the UR or CR on its own Ex. Bell

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A Stimulus that an organism has learned to associate with the unconditioned stimulus. Ex. Bell

Conditioned Response

The learned reaction (emotion &/or physiological) to the CS

John B. Watson's "Little Albert" Study

9-month old albert was shown a variety of animals and items. However when a white rat was shown the experimenter would make a loud noise and Albert would become scared. Albert made the association of loud noise to the rat and is now scared of the rat. UCS-Loud noise UCR- Fear NS- White Rat CS- White rat CR- Fear.

Acquisition

The pairing stage NS+UCS (Food and Bell at same time)

Extinction

After UCS is no longer presented, the association becomes weaker and eventually disappears(CS will no longer elicit CR)

Spontaneous Recovery

After Extinction, one presentation of the CS elicits the CR

Stimulus Generalization

Stimuli similar to CS also elicit the CR

Phobias

Irrational Fears

Stimulus Discrimination

Only CS elicits the Cr

Higher-Order conditioning

"Chain Reaction" Secondary CS can predict (through learned association) the primary CS, which predicts the UCS

Contingency Factors(Rescorla)

NS+UCS is better than UCS+NS

CF; timing

best if UCS follows the NS by no more than a few seconds

CF: Predictability

Need to consistently pair the NS w/UCS & use NS to signal UCS

CF; Signal Strength

Increase strength of stimulus=stronger association (more quickly=Stronger)

CF; Attention

Stimulus that becomes the CS is whatever the organism pays the most attention to

Biopreparedness(Seligman)

We have biological predispositions to make certain associations(e.g. nausea, pain, strong emotional responses

Taste Aversion(Garcia)

*Eat food + get sick= don't want to think/see/smell the food
*Chemotherapy & Taste Aversions
*Doesn't follow the contingency model(e.g. Timing)

Operant Conditioning

Without change in behavior as a result of consequences(Associating a behavior with a consequence) good & bad

B.F. Skinner & the Skinner Box (operant Chamber)

Rat is in a box with an electric grid, button, light, and food outside of the box. The current is running through the rats body and it only stops when they press the button. When they press the button the obtain food. Button pressing increases. Both PR and NR

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases likelihood of a behavior will occur again (strengthen response)

Primary v Secondary (conditioned reinforcer)

Primary & Secondary

PvS; Primary

Naturally reinforcing, i.e. there is no learning necessary for them to be reinforcing satisfies a biological need. Ex: food and water

Positive Reinforcement (add)

Adding something desirable to increase/strengthen a behavior

Negative Reinforcement (Take Away)

Removal/take away something undesirable to increase/strengthen a behavior

Escape Conditioning (type of NR)

Learning a behavior to end an unpleasant situation/stimulus (that you are already exposed to)

Avoidance Conditioning (type of NR)

Learning a behavior to prevent exposure to an unpleasant situation/stimulus

Positive Punishment

decreasing/weakening the likelihood of a behavior occurring again, by adding something undesirable

Negative Punishment

Decreasing/weakening the likelihood of a behavior occurring again, by taking away something undesirable,

Acquisition (operant Conditioning)

Initial learning stage; when the organism recognizes the behavior & consequence (cause & effect)

Shaping

Rewarding successive approximates of a desired behavior (reinforce a similar/smaller behavior as the organism gets closer and closer to the desired behavior.

Chaining

Reinforcement of individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior. (Breaking down complex tasks into parts)

Extinction(Operant Conditioning)

Occurs if/when the consequence stops, behavior reverses.

Discriminative Stimuli

Only a particular behavior signals/produces the consequence; can organism display a behavior in one situation but not in another; believes the consequence is only available in certain circumstances.

Generalization

Similar behaviors produce the same consequence that you've figured out from experience & therefore repeat

Premack Principle

First complete a low-probability/needed behavior, then you get to do the highly desired behavior; reinforcers exist in a hierarchy - reinforcers have different reinforcement "power"

Disequilibrium hypothesis

Any activity can become a reinforcer if access is restricted, reinforces become more powerful when access is restricted

Continuous Reinforcement

Reward is given every time the behavior occurs

Fixed Ratio(FR)

Reward is given after a set number of responses. Ex: Punch Card/Loyalty Card, grade 5 essays then take a break.

Variable Ratio(VR)

Reward is given after an average/unknown/inconsistent number of response. Ex; Gambling, how many at-bats before home run.

Fixed Interval(FI)

Reward is given after a set amount of time. Ex; Paycheck every 2 weeks, Study for 1 hour then take break.

Variable Interval(VI)

Reward is given after an average/unknown/inconsistent amount of time. Ex: Pop quizzes, waiting to see a deer while hunting

Learned Helplessness(Seligman)

Tendency to give up any effort to control one's environment after repeated failures

E.C. Tolman's rat experiment

Took 3 groups of rats with a maze
Group 1; Regularly Reinforced, Every completion of maze gets food, faster
Group 2; Never rewarded, slightly gets faster
Group 3; Not rewarded till 11th day; sudden fast completion.

Latent Learning

Learning that is not immediately evident (usually demonstrated later on)

Cognitive map

mental representations of familiar locations

Insight(Kohler's Monkeys)

The sudden realization/understanding of a solution to a problem (a-ha!)

Observational (Social) Learning

Learning without direct interaction, experience does not have to be our own

OL; Modeling

learning new behaviors by watching others (models) & imitating their behavior (Monkey see Monkey do)

OL; Vicarious Learning

learning new behaviors by watching the consequences of someone else behaviors.

Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment

Exposure to violence is positively correlated with violent behavior(but remember, correlation does not imply causation)
One group watched something violent, one doesn't. The group shown violence demonstrated violence towards the doll. The group not shown violence demonstrated a peaceful/non-violent behavior.