Media Psychology Exam 3 Study Guide

What is the importance of relationships as viewed by evolutionary psychologists?

Relationships are crucial for human survival and reproduction. Forming strong bonds, particularly romantic relationship and family structures, evolved as an adaptive mechanism. These relationships provide support, protection, and cooperation

What were Aristotle’s distinction between friend types?

Friends of Utility - Formed for mutual benefit or usefulness

Friends of Pleasure - Based on enjoyment of activities

Friends of Character - Highest form of friendship, grounded with mutual respect, virtue, and the shared pursuit of a greater good.

What is a person’s comparison level? What about comparison level for alternatives?

Comparison level: Expectations about what people expect or feel they deserve out of a relationship

For alternatives: Expectations about what people can get out of alternative relationships

What does equity theory say about relationships?

People are motivated to pursue fairness or equity in their relationships, benefits proportional to the effort both people put into it

What are the three factors discussed in class that affect choice of friends?

Proximity, Similarity, familiarity (?)

Proximity can bridge the gap between very different people

What were three types of scales that are related to phubbing?

Phubbing Scale → How Often?

Phone Snubbing Scale → How ignored do you feel?

Phone Obsession Scale

What were the finding in the study of gaze direction and affiliation ratings?

Individuals are more likely to feel a sense of affiliation when others direct their gaze towards them. Eye contact can enhance feelings of connection and social bonding.

What is the difference between integral and incidental cellphone use during a conversation? Which one is reactive/proactive?

Integral - Phone use directly related to ongoing conversation

Incidental - Unrelated phone use during a conversation // reactive

What characteristics are related to phubbing?

Low self esteem and social anxiety

What is the crucial characteristic of friendship that makes friendship maintenance necessary?

Intimacy is the crucial characteristic of friendship

Friendships require ongoing effort to nurture and sustain the emotional closeness that defines them.

What is most being displaced by parental cell phone use? Why is this concerning?

Parental cell phone use disrupts face to face interactions, which are crucial for children’s development

What are the 4 friendship maintenance behavior categories?

Positivity

Openness

Assurances (Support)

Social Networking (Interaction)

What are the gender differences of the friendship maintenance behaviors?

Support is typically more skewed towards women.

Impression Management

Controlling the way others perceive you - like posting highlights of your life and never the low points

What was the general effect on romantic self esteem of making an online dating profile?

Expecting CMC follow up led to higher romantic self esteem than expecting f2f follow up

What types of deception are prevalent in OD profiles?

Men often lie about their heights, women their weight.

How does perception of deception influence the success of the first date?

Perception of partner’s deception, but not own, negatively impacted first date success

What are the different types of ghosting?

Sudden

Gradual

Why might someone ghost?

Don’t want confrontation

Doesn’t want to hurt feelings

Not interested anymore

Why is ghosting psychologically hard on the ghostee?

It makes the ghostee think that they’re no longer attractive/worthy enough for people

“Ambiguous loss” - No clear reason for the outcome

• Initiates rumination (dwelling)

How important is the media as a source of info about sex for adolescents?

57% of 14 - 16 yr olds said media was a primary source of info

What % of female and male teens have viewed porn?

61% Females, 93% Males

What are the category distinctions for Pornographic Media?

Sexually violent material

Non violent sexual material

Non violent and non degrading sexual material

All non explicit sexual material

What is the term for the standard sexual material in typical Hollywood movies?

Sexual Innuendos

What accounts for the differences in explicitness between network TV and streaming services?

Because of Hays code standards have been more conservative for digital media

Network TV - More restrictions because of broader audience and advertising

Streaming - Less restrictions because of subscriber preferences

How common are various levels of sexual behavior in movies and TV shows?

Sexual innuendos and behaviors common

• Element in over 80% of movies and TV shows

• Talk about sex (68%)

• Actual sexual behavior (35%)

• Intercourse depicted/strongly implied (11%)

What percentage of TV shows mention birth control, or possible consequences of sex

15%

What is the effect of media on attitudes toward casual sex?

It’s pretty much the norm

What generally are the effects of watching TV on the estimates of prevalence and support for extramarital sex (adultery)?

Less common than casual premarital sex, still common

• Led to higher estimates of people having affairs, divorces, abortions, and illegitimate children (skews views)

• A belief that adultery was common, support grows

How is marital sex often portrayed in TV and movies?

Boring, uninteresting, or otherwise devalued

When did advertising for contraception become somewhat accepted? How common is this form of advertising?

Considered controversial, cautiously showed up in the 1900s, still rare

What is the effect of exposure to sexually explicit material on the estimates of frequency in real life of various sex acts that commonly occur sexually explicit material?

Overestimation of frequency of all kinds of sexual practices

What are the effects of viewing idealized images of women on attitudes towards their own partner?

Own partner rated as less attractive, loved less

What does script theory predict in those who consume a lot of sexually explicit material?

Higher likelihood of asking for sex acts as seen in those materials

What attitudes were exposed to media that objectify women found to be related to?

Tolerance of SHarassment in men

Tolerance of sexual violence (blaming the victim)

What were the interesting findings of “spillover” effects of women objectifying media in the “case of the incompetent female college president”?

Female president seen as less competent if sexual ad was next to her

What is the status of evidence for the relationship between consuming sexually explicit materials and sex crimes?

Unsure, but heavy consumption is associated with sex crimes

What were the effects of teens who were heavy viewers of TV with sexual content? How did parental, same sex and opposite sex co viewing of this material affect early sexual behavior?

Teens who were heavy viewers were

• More likely to have sex within a year

• More non coital sexual behavior

• Teen pregnancy 3 years later

Parental and same sex co viewing lowered likelihood of sex/STDs/Teen Pregnancies

What is the prevalence of sexting?

Prevalence depends on the study & the definitions between .9 and .60%

• Prevalent among adults 18 - 29

• 38% sending 42% receiving

What are some negative factors of sexting?

Can lead to…

• Greater consumption of sexually explicit media

• Higher sensation seeking

• Poorer personal relationships

• Drug use

• Bullying and victim of bullying

What percentage of people report non consensual forwarding of sexts?

15% (Assholes)

What is the relationship status where sexting has not been found to be related to risk taking and other negative behaviors?

Positive outcomes like greater relational and sexual satisfaction

What were the findings in the series of studies of male exposure to “sexy” pictures or items on their impatience?

3 experimental studies…

• Landscapes vs Women in Bikinis and Lingerie

• Rating t shirts and bras on quality and color

• Men or women in bikinis running through landscape, rating attractiveness

All cases “sex condition” (choosing less reward but receiving it quicker) led to preference for smaller but more immediate reward

What are contextual factors that can influence the effects of sexually explicit material?

• Serious? Playful? How tasteful?

• Artistic worth and intent?

• Relationship of the sex scene into the plot?

• Who are you watching with?

• Cultural context

• Sex in the context of romance?

• Expectations?

What three researcher’s views of sexually explicit material were mentioned in class?

(BAD) Conservative moralist → public portrayals of sex disgusting and offensive

(NEUTRAL) Liberal → Sexual depictions trigger fantasies… not acted out

(BAD) Feminist → Sexually explicit material is a powerful socializing agent that promotes the sexual abuse of women

TW

What were the findings in the (small) study on college males and the labeling of forceful intercourse

Of 76 participants, 32% of them said yes towards forcing a woman into sex if no consequences. 13.6% said same thing but with the word rape.

What are the effects of consuming alcohol on evaluation of victim situation in violent sexual material

Alcohol consumption decreases sensitivity

• Men and women consuming alcohol and judge videos

• Less sensitive to violent content, messes with judgement

What are the general characteristics of slasher movies? What was the finding with respect to “final girls” and their sexualization in slasher movies

Often extremely violent with strong sexual overtones

Final girls are often more attractive, and less likely to be engaged in sexual behavior

How does desensitization work?

Classical conditioning

What approximate percentages of TV shows and movies contain violence?

65% TV shows and 90% movies

What approx number of violent acts per hour in programming for children and adults? How much of violence in children’s programming is due to cartoon violence?

7.9 violent act/hour in children’s programs (6.3 sans subtract cartoons). 4.7/hr in adult

What percentages of TV crimes are murder and theft? What are these percentages in real world crime?

In TV, 25% for murders and 6% for theft

In reality, 1% and 65% respectively

What is a typical reaction to media violence?

Transitory fright

What is the difference between preschoolers and older children in what they are afraid of?

Preschoolers are scared of monsters

Older children are scared of dangers and injuries

What may be important for parents to do during co viewing media violence with their children?

Co viewing with parents important, accidental positive reinforcement due to affection

What were the 4 factors in social cognitive theory that influence modeling?

Be exposed to media example and pay attention

Encode and remember the behavior

Must be able to translate into own behavior

Must develop motivation to perform behavior

What is the finding with respect to empathy levels and enjoyment of fright and violence?

Higher empathy related to less enjoyment of fright and violence

What type of media violence is most likely to lead to sensitization?

Very graphic violence that is clearly real (news)

Why do young males desensitize themselves to graphic violence on purpose? How does this fit with evolutionary traditions?

For the sake of gender role socialization. Boys desensitize themselves so they can watch graphic violence and seem unaffected. Impresses people. Men are “supposed” to protect and fight.

What is the cultivation effect of TV viewing? Why could this effect become stronger with new tech?

Frequent viewers of TV think the world is more dangerous and crime ridden than infrequent viewers. More tech means more exposure

How is violence in narrative media reinforced?

“Edgy antihero”, reinforcement as the value of violence

What type of play was mentioned in class as being important for children in order for them to learn the difference between make believe and reality?

Pretend/Make believe play

• Allow children to understand what’s real and what’s not

Cartoon violence is highly stylized and unrealistic

News and Docs hard for children because of realism

What was the general trend in the findings of the meta analysis of 37 studies investigating the relationship between exposure to media violence and hostile biases?

Strong relationships between media violence exposure and hostile appraisals, also correlated with age

• Hostile attribution bias → Things are done with bad intent

• Hostile perception bias → May interpret facial expressions/body language as hostile

• Hostile expectation bias → The tendency to assume that someone will react to potential conflicts with hostility (?)

What is the relationship between sensation seeking characteristics and the enjoyment of media violence?

Sensation seeking is positively related to enjoyment of media violence. Children high in this area prefer violent games

What were the findings relating to the strength of modeling effects by age and gender?

Modeling typically increase up to ages 8 - 12 then slowly decrease

No evidence for gender differences.

How could media violence embedded in a humorous context reinforce violence?

It associates violence in a more positive light

What were the effects of general TV viewing at mean age 14 on aggressive acts at mean ages 16 or 22 in males and females with and without prior aggression

It increased acts of aggression in every age and gender group

What were the factors in the second longitudinal study discussed in class that affected adult aggression 15 years later?

TV Violence viewing, perceived realism of TV violence, identification with aggressive female characters, and identification with aggressive male characters

What was the trend in media reporting on media violence effects between 1950 and 2000? What were suggested reasons for the increasing inaccuracy of this reporting?

It went from strong link to weak link to moderate to weak, etc.

It is believed media companies have downplayed these results.

What was the point of the instructor’s mentions of the soldiers who wouldn’t or couldnt shoot in successive wars? How does this relate to video games?

90% of soldiers had loaded muskets, people don’t want to shoot. Violent game actions rewards = aggressive thoughts & behavior increases

What effects of playing violent video games does the APA report from the 2017 list? Is this conclusion uncontroversial?

Use of violent games results in increase in overall aggression

What happened to Anita Sarkeesian when she set up a kickstarter to produce some of the videos we watched for assignment 6a?

She was met by a cyber hate mob.

• They doxxed her

• Sent rape threats

She had to go into hiding

How is Anita Sarkeesian’s case different from Justine Saccos?

Sacco got fired from her job after tweeting a very racist tweet

Deindividuation

A state of reduced individuality, self awareness, and morals which typically occurs when people are part of a group and/or anonymous.

What are the defining characteristics of cyberbullying?

Aggression that is intentionally and repeatedly carried out in an electronic context

What are the forms of cyberbullying?

Flaming, harassment, doxing, exclusion, impersonation, cyber stalking, and sexual harassment

What mental health results from cyber victimization?

5x odds of mental health issues

5.9x odds of psychological distress

6.1x odds of suicidal ideation

Higher chances of PTSD, depression, and self harm

What is the general range of cyberbullying in middle school, high school, and college?

MS: Cyberbullying - 5-8% | Cybervictims - 7% | Both Bully and victim - 4%

HS: Victim 21% | More females and sexual minorities | 33% never told adults

C: Bullying 5% | Victims 6% | Both 5% | Bystander 46%

What is the increase in risk of having a risk factor for suicide when bullied and which for cyuberbullying?

Bullied is almost 200%, cyberbullying is 220%

What are the risk factors for CB (cyberbullying)?

Being a cyber victim

Viewing CB as okay

More time online

More substance use

Lower academic performance

Lower self esteem

What factors are associated with lower tendency to CB?

Higher empathy

More parental monitoring

Better school safety

What factors are associated with cybervictimization

Victimization in traditional bullying

Social Anxiety

More internet use

When approx was public shaming abolished?

1839

Around which time did the incidence of major depressive disorders in students suddenly increase?

2010/11

How much time were MS and HS spending on media around 2010?

5 - 6 hours

What activities ALLEGEDLY made 8th and 10th graders happy/unhappy

Physical in real life activities reported made the kids happy whilst online activities upset them.

How is in person social interaction related to unhappiness and depression?

Lessen unhappiness and depression

What were the trends in MS/HS students regarding attending parties and get togethers?

All of them were declining

The decreases showed up at the same time as mental health issues arose

In the video we saw in class, what two ways were explained in which sleep affects emotion?

Amygdala dysfunction

Mood is affected from slightly worse brain functioning (brain is tired)

What other types of activities in high schoolers was there a decline in when social media took off?

Dating and sexual activity

Which 5 factors appear to moderate the association between time on SM (Social media) and mental health issues?

Social comparison

FOMO

Body objectification

Perfectionism

Relationship with parents

How do social comparison, FOMO, body objectification and perfectionism moderate the the connection between SM and mental health issues?

Social comparison and FOMO

• Mediates connection between time spent on Insta and depressive symptoms, self esteem, and disordered eating

• Passive browsing more social comparison → more FOMO

Body Image and Perfectionism

• Facebook use associated with greater social comparison and greater self objectification

• Sharing selfies positively associated with body shame through comparison, also positively associated with beauty ideal internalization

Selfie manipulation was negatively associated with body shame

How does the relationship with parents moderate the associations between time on social media and mental health issues

Parents with strong restrictions on SM use and good relationships have kids who use SM less, kids have better mental health

What appears to be a long term trend with respect to young people and risk taking?

Less enjoyment

What domains do developmental psychologists distinguish in child development

Motor development

Cognitive development

Socio emotional development

What kinds of things do children have to learn?

Motor skills

Language

General Knowledge

Cognitive Control

Delayed gratification

What was the association between screen time and gross and fine motor skills in children (as well as other categories?)

More screen media use → worse motor skills (and also like worse everything)

What aspects of cog development did we talk about in class?

Reality vs Make believe

Language

Knowledge structure

control over mind

delayed gratification

What type of play helps with learning the difference between reality and make believe

Playing pretend

How was cognitive control in children possibly related to the popular toy unboxing videos?

Unboxing videos provide unpredictable rewards, infinite scroll, no delayed gratification