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What is the importance of relationships as viewed by evolutionary psychologists?
Relationships are crucial for human survival and reproduction. Forming strong bonds, particularly romantic relationship and family structures, evolved as an adaptive mechanism. These relationships provide support, protection, and cooperation
What were Aristotle’s distinction between friend types?
Friends of Utility - Formed for mutual benefit or usefulness
Friends of Pleasure - Based on enjoyment of activities
Friends of Character - Highest form of friendship, grounded with mutual respect, virtue, and the shared pursuit of a greater good.
What is a person’s comparison level? What about comparison level for alternatives?
Comparison level: Expectations about what people expect or feel they deserve out of a relationship
For alternatives: Expectations about what people can get out of alternative relationships
What does equity theory say about relationships?
People are motivated to pursue fairness or equity in their relationships, benefits proportional to the effort both people put into it
What are the three factors discussed in class that affect choice of friends?
Proximity, Similarity, familiarity (?)
Proximity can bridge the gap between very different people
What were three types of scales that are related to phubbing?
Phubbing Scale → How Often?
Phone Snubbing Scale → How ignored do you feel?
Phone Obsession Scale
What were the finding in the study of gaze direction and affiliation ratings?
Individuals are more likely to feel a sense of affiliation when others direct their gaze towards them. Eye contact can enhance feelings of connection and social bonding.
What is the difference between integral and incidental cellphone use during a conversation? Which one is reactive/proactive?
Integral - Phone use directly related to ongoing conversation
Incidental - Unrelated phone use during a conversation // reactive
What characteristics are related to phubbing?
Low self esteem and social anxiety
What is the crucial characteristic of friendship that makes friendship maintenance necessary?
Intimacy is the crucial characteristic of friendship
Friendships require ongoing effort to nurture and sustain the emotional closeness that defines them.
What is most being displaced by parental cell phone use? Why is this concerning?
Parental cell phone use disrupts face to face interactions, which are crucial for children’s development
What are the 4 friendship maintenance behavior categories?
Positivity
Openness
Assurances (Support)
Social Networking (Interaction)
What are the gender differences of the friendship maintenance behaviors?
Support is typically more skewed towards women.
Impression Management
Controlling the way others perceive you - like posting highlights of your life and never the low points
What was the general effect on romantic self esteem of making an online dating profile?
Expecting CMC follow up led to higher romantic self esteem than expecting f2f follow up
What types of deception are prevalent in OD profiles?
Men often lie about their heights, women their weight.
How does perception of deception influence the success of the first date?
Perception of partner’s deception, but not own, negatively impacted first date success
What are the different types of ghosting?
Sudden
Gradual
Why might someone ghost?
Don’t want confrontation
Doesn’t want to hurt feelings
Not interested anymore
Why is ghosting psychologically hard on the ghostee?
It makes the ghostee think that they’re no longer attractive/worthy enough for people
“Ambiguous loss” - No clear reason for the outcome
Initiates rumination (dwelling)
How important is the media as a source of info about sex for adolescents?
57% of 14 - 16 yr olds said media was a primary source of info
What % of female and male teens have viewed porn?
61% Females, 93% Males
What are the category distinctions for Pornographic Media?
Sexually violent material
Non violent sexual material
Non violent and non degrading sexual material
All non explicit sexual material
What is the term for the standard sexual material in typical Hollywood movies?
Sexual Innuendos
What accounts for the differences in explicitness between network TV and streaming services?
Because of Hays code standards have been more conservative for digital media
Network TV - More restrictions because of broader audience and advertising
Streaming - Less restrictions because of subscriber preferences
How common are various levels of sexual behavior in movies and TV shows?
Sexual innuendos and behaviors common
Element in over 80% of movies and TV shows
Talk about sex (68%)
Actual sexual behavior (35%)
Intercourse depicted/strongly implied (11%)
What percentage of TV shows mention birth control, or possible consequences of sex
15%
What is the effect of media on attitudes toward casual sex?
It’s pretty much the norm
What generally are the effects of watching TV on the estimates of prevalence and support for extramarital sex (adultery)?
Less common than casual premarital sex, still common
Led to higher estimates of people having affairs, divorces, abortions, and illegitimate children (skews views)
A belief that adultery was common, support grows
How is marital sex often portrayed in TV and movies?
Boring, uninteresting, or otherwise devalued
When did advertising for contraception become somewhat accepted? How common is this form of advertising?
Considered controversial, cautiously showed up in the 1900s, still rare
What is the effect of exposure to sexually explicit material on the estimates of frequency in real life of various sex acts that commonly occur sexually explicit material?
Overestimation of frequency of all kinds of sexual practices
What are the effects of viewing idealized images of women on attitudes towards their own partner?
Own partner rated as less attractive, loved less
What does script theory predict in those who consume a lot of sexually explicit material?
Higher likelihood of asking for sex acts as seen in those materials
What attitudes were exposed to media that objectify women found to be related to?
Tolerance of SHarassment in men
Tolerance of sexual violence (blaming the victim)
What were the interesting findings of “spillover” effects of women objectifying media in the “case of the incompetent female college president”?
Female president seen as less competent if sexual ad was next to her
What is the status of evidence for the relationship between consuming sexually explicit materials and sex crimes?
Unsure, but heavy consumption is associated with sex crimes
What were the effects of teens who were heavy viewers of TV with sexual content? How did parental, same sex and opposite sex co viewing of this material affect early sexual behavior?
Teens who were heavy viewers were
More likely to have sex within a year
More non coital sexual behavior
Teen pregnancy 3 years later
Parental and same sex co viewing lowered likelihood of sex/STDs/Teen Pregnancies
What is the prevalence of sexting?
Prevalence depends on the study & the definitions between .9 and .60%
Prevalent among adults 18 - 29
38% sending 42% receiving
What are some negative factors of sexting?
Can lead to…
Greater consumption of sexually explicit media
Higher sensation seeking
Poorer personal relationships
Drug use
Bullying and victim of bullying
What percentage of people report non consensual forwarding of sexts?
15% (Assholes)
What is the relationship status where sexting has not been found to be related to risk taking and other negative behaviors?
Positive outcomes like greater relational and sexual satisfaction
What were the findings in the series of studies of male exposure to “sexy” pictures or items on their impatience?
3 experimental studies…
Landscapes vs Women in Bikinis and Lingerie
Rating t shirts and bras on quality and color
Men or women in bikinis running through landscape, rating attractiveness
All cases “sex condition” (choosing less reward but receiving it quicker) led to preference for smaller but more immediate reward
What are contextual factors that can influence the effects of sexually explicit material?
Serious? Playful? How tasteful?
Artistic worth and intent?
Relationship of the sex scene into the plot?
Who are you watching with?
Cultural context
Sex in the context of romance?
Expectations?
What three researcher’s views of sexually explicit material were mentioned in class?
(BAD) Conservative moralist → public portrayals of sex disgusting and offensive
(NEUTRAL) Liberal → Sexual depictions trigger fantasies… not acted out
(BAD) Feminist → Sexually explicit material is a powerful socializing agent that promotes the sexual abuse of women
TW
What were the findings in the (small) study on college males and the labeling of forceful intercourse
Of 76 participants, 32% of them said yes towards forcing a woman into sex if no consequences. 13.6% said same thing but with the word rape.
What are the effects of consuming alcohol on evaluation of victim situation in violent sexual material
Alcohol consumption decreases sensitivity
Men and women consuming alcohol and judge videos
Less sensitive to violent content, messes with judgement
What are the general characteristics of slasher movies? What was the finding with respect to “final girls” and their sexualization in slasher movies
Often extremely violent with strong sexual overtones
Final girls are often more attractive, and less likely to be engaged in sexual behavior
How does desensitization work?
Classical conditioning
What approximate percentages of TV shows and movies contain violence?
65% TV shows and 90% movies
What approx number of violent acts per hour in programming for children and adults? How much of violence in children’s programming is due to cartoon violence?
7.9 violent act/hour in children’s programs (6.3 sans subtract cartoons). 4.7/hr in adult
What percentages of TV crimes are murder and theft? What are these percentages in real world crime?
In TV, 25% for murders and 6% for theft
In reality, 1% and 65% respectively
What is a typical reaction to media violence?
Transitory fright
What is the difference between preschoolers and older children in what they are afraid of?
Preschoolers are scared of monsters
Older children are scared of dangers and injuries
What may be important for parents to do during co viewing media violence with their children?
Co viewing with parents important, accidental positive reinforcement due to affection
What were the 4 factors in social cognitive theory that influence modeling?
Be exposed to media example and pay attention
Encode and remember the behavior
Must be able to translate into own behavior
Must develop motivation to perform behavior
What is the finding with respect to empathy levels and enjoyment of fright and violence?
Higher empathy related to less enjoyment of fright and violence
What type of media violence is most likely to lead to sensitization?
Very graphic violence that is clearly real (news)
Why do young males desensitize themselves to graphic violence on purpose? How does this fit with evolutionary traditions?
For the sake of gender role socialization. Boys desensitize themselves so they can watch graphic violence and seem unaffected. Impresses people. Men are “supposed” to protect and fight.
What is the cultivation effect of TV viewing? Why could this effect become stronger with new tech?
Frequent viewers of TV think the world is more dangerous and crime ridden than infrequent viewers. More tech means more exposure
How is violence in narrative media reinforced?
“Edgy antihero”, reinforcement as the value of violence
What type of play was mentioned in class as being important for children in order for them to learn the difference between make believe and reality?
Pretend/Make believe play
Allow children to understand what’s real and what’s not
Cartoon violence is highly stylized and unrealistic
News and Docs hard for children because of realism
What was the general trend in the findings of the meta analysis of 37 studies investigating the relationship between exposure to media violence and hostile biases?
Strong relationships between media violence exposure and hostile appraisals, also correlated with age
Hostile attribution bias → Things are done with bad intent
Hostile perception bias → May interpret facial expressions/body language as hostile
Hostile expectation bias → The tendency to assume that someone will react to potential conflicts with hostility (?)
What is the relationship between sensation seeking characteristics and the enjoyment of media violence?
Sensation seeking is positively related to enjoyment of media violence. Children high in this area prefer violent games
What were the findings relating to the strength of modeling effects by age and gender?
Modeling typically increase up to ages 8 - 12 then slowly decrease
No evidence for gender differences.
How could media violence embedded in a humorous context reinforce violence?
It associates violence in a more positive light
What were the effects of general TV viewing at mean age 14 on aggressive acts at mean ages 16 or 22 in males and females with and without prior aggression
It increased acts of aggression in every age and gender group
What were the factors in the second longitudinal study discussed in class that affected adult aggression 15 years later?
TV Violence viewing, perceived realism of TV violence, identification with aggressive female characters, and identification with aggressive male characters
What was the trend in media reporting on media violence effects between 1950 and 2000? What were suggested reasons for the increasing inaccuracy of this reporting?
It went from strong link to weak link to moderate to weak, etc.
It is believed media companies have downplayed these results.
What was the point of the instructor’s mentions of the soldiers who wouldn’t or couldnt shoot in successive wars? How does this relate to video games?
90% of soldiers had loaded muskets, people don’t want to shoot. Violent game actions rewards = aggressive thoughts & behavior increases
What effects of playing violent video games does the APA report from the 2017 list? Is this conclusion uncontroversial?
Use of violent games results in increase in overall aggression
What happened to Anita Sarkeesian when she set up a kickstarter to produce some of the videos we watched for assignment 6a?
She was met by a cyber hate mob.
They doxxed her
Sent rape threats
She had to go into hiding
How is Anita Sarkeesian’s case different from Justine Saccos?
Sacco got fired from her job after tweeting a very racist tweet
Deindividuation
A state of reduced individuality, self awareness, and morals which typically occurs when people are part of a group and/or anonymous.
What are the defining characteristics of cyberbullying?
Aggression that is intentionally and repeatedly carried out in an electronic context
What are the forms of cyberbullying?
Flaming, harassment, doxing, exclusion, impersonation, cyber stalking, and sexual harassment
What mental health results from cyber victimization?
5x odds of mental health issues
5.9x odds of psychological distress
6.1x odds of suicidal ideation
Higher chances of PTSD, depression, and self harm
What is the general range of cyberbullying in middle school, high school, and college?
MS: Cyberbullying - 5-8% | Cybervictims - 7% | Both Bully and victim - 4%
HS: Victim 21% | More females and sexual minorities | 33% never told adults
C: Bullying 5% | Victims 6% | Both 5% | Bystander 46%
What is the increase in risk of having a risk factor for suicide when bullied and which for cyuberbullying?
Bullied is almost 200%, cyberbullying is 220%
What are the risk factors for CB (cyberbullying)?
Being a cyber victim
Viewing CB as okay
More time online
More substance use
Lower academic performance
Lower self esteem
What factors are associated with lower tendency to CB?
Higher empathy
More parental monitoring
Better school safety
What factors are associated with cybervictimization
Victimization in traditional bullying
Social Anxiety
More internet use
When approx was public shaming abolished?
1839
Around which time did the incidence of major depressive disorders in students suddenly increase?
2010/11
How much time were MS and HS spending on media around 2010?
5 - 6 hours
What activities ALLEGEDLY made 8th and 10th graders happy/unhappy
Physical in real life activities reported made the kids happy whilst online activities upset them.
How is in person social interaction related to unhappiness and depression?
Lessen unhappiness and depression
What were the trends in MS/HS students regarding attending parties and get togethers?
All of them were declining
The decreases showed up at the same time as mental health issues arose
In the video we saw in class, what two ways were explained in which sleep affects emotion?
Amygdala dysfunction
Mood is affected from slightly worse brain functioning (brain is tired)
What other types of activities in high schoolers was there a decline in when social media took off?
Dating and sexual activity
Which 5 factors appear to moderate the association between time on SM (Social media) and mental health issues?
Social comparison
FOMO
Body objectification
Perfectionism
Relationship with parents
How do social comparison, FOMO, body objectification and perfectionism moderate the the connection between SM and mental health issues?
Social comparison and FOMO
Mediates connection between time spent on Insta and depressive symptoms, self esteem, and disordered eating
Passive browsing more social comparison → more FOMO
Body Image and Perfectionism
Facebook use associated with greater social comparison and greater self objectification
Sharing selfies positively associated with body shame through comparison, also positively associated with beauty ideal internalization
Selfie manipulation was negatively associated with body shame
How does the relationship with parents moderate the associations between time on social media and mental health issues
Parents with strong restrictions on SM use and good relationships have kids who use SM less, kids have better mental health
What appears to be a long term trend with respect to young people and risk taking?
Less enjoyment
What domains do developmental psychologists distinguish in child development
Motor development
Cognitive development
Socio emotional development
What kinds of things do children have to learn?
Motor skills
Language
General Knowledge
Cognitive Control
Delayed gratification
What was the association between screen time and gross and fine motor skills in children (as well as other categories?)
More screen media use → worse motor skills (and also like worse everything)
What aspects of cog development did we talk about in class?
Reality vs Make believe
Language
Knowledge structure
control over mind
delayed gratification
What type of play helps with learning the difference between reality and make believe
Playing pretend
How was cognitive control in children possibly related to the popular toy unboxing videos?
Unboxing videos provide unpredictable rewards, infinite scroll, no delayed gratification
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