Bio Final

Inputs of Cellular Respiration

Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), Oxygen (O₂)

Outputs of Cellular Respiration

Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Water (H₂O), ATP

Aerobic Respiration

Uses oxygen; includes glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and ETC; makes ~36 ATP

Anaerobic Respiration

No oxygen; includes glycolysis + fermentation; makes 2 ATP

Function of the Mitochondria

Produces ATP; site of aerobic respiration

Alcohol Fermentation

Occurs in yeast; produces ethanol, CO₂, and 2 ATP

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Occurs in muscles; produces lactic acid and 2 ATP

Prokaryotes

No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles; smaller (e.g., bacteria)

Eukaryotes

Have nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., plants, animals)

Nucleus

Stores genetic material (DNA)

Mitochondria

"Powerhouse of the cell"; site of ATP production

Ribosomes

Site of protein synthesis

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Processes and transports proteins (Rough) or lipids (Smooth)

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins

Lysosomes

Contain enzymes to break down waste

Chloroplasts

Site of photosynthesis in plant cells

Cell Membrane Structure

Phospholipid bilayer with proteins; selectively permeable

Passive Transport

Movement of substances without energy; includes diffusion and osmosis

Active Transport

Requires energy to move substances against concentration gradient

Osmosis

Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

Isotonic Solution

Same solute concentration; no net water movement

Hypotonic Solution

Less solute outside; water enters cell; cell swells

Hypertonic Solution

More solute outside; water leaves cell; cell shrinks

Phases of the Cell Cycle

G₁, S (DNA replication), G₂, Mitosis, Cytokinesis

Proto-oncogenes

Genes that stimulate cell division; can become cancerous when mutated

Tumor Suppressor Genes

Prevent uncontrolled cell division; mutations lead to cancer

Dysregulation of Checkpoints

Failure in cell cycle control; can lead to cancer

Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cells that can become specialized

Cell Differentiation

Process by which stem cells develop into specific cell types

DNA Structure

Double helix made of nucleotides: A, T, C, G

DNA Replication

Semi-conservative; produces two identical DNA strands

Transcription

Process of copying DNA to mRNA

Translation

Process where mRNA is used to build proteins at the ribosome

Insertion Mutation

Addition of a base in the DNA sequence

Deletion Mutation

Removal of a base in the DNA sequence

Substitution Mutation

One base is swapped for another

Silent Mutation

Mutation that does not change the amino acid

Missense Mutation

Changes one amino acid in the protein

Nonsense Mutation

Creates a stop codon; shortens the protein

Protein Structure & Function

Shape determines function; mutations can alter shape and function

Meiosis

Type of cell division that produces gametes (sperm/egg)

Nondisjunction

Failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis

Chromosomal Mutations

Changes in chromosome structure or number

Karyotype

Chart showing an individual's chromosomes; used to detect abnormalities

How Genes Influence Traits

Genes code for proteins, which affect traits

Heredity

Passing of traits from parent to offspring

Genetics

Study of heredity and variation

Trait

Observable characteristic

Gene

Segment of DNA that codes for a protein

Allele

Different forms of a gene

Protein

Molecule made by genes; determines traits

Mendelian Inheritance

Traits follow dominant/recessive patterns

Monohybrid Cross

Punnett square involving one trait

Sex-linked Traits

Traits found on X chromosome (e.g., color blindness)

Codominance

Both alleles fully expressed (e.g., AB blood type)

Incomplete Dominance

Blended phenotype (e.g., red + white = pink)

Multiple Alleles

More than two alleles (e.g., blood types A, B, O)

Pedigrees

Charts showing inheritance of traits across generations

Dominant Trait

Only one allele needed to show trait; does not skip generations

Recessive Trait

Two alleles needed; can skip generations

Natural Selection

Process where organisms with advantageous traits survive and reproduce

Darwin's Principles

Variation, overproduction, competition, survival of the fittest

Directional Selection

Favors one extreme phenotype

Disruptive Selection

Favors both extremes over the average

Stabilizing Selection

Favors the average phenotype

Evidence of Evolution

Fossils, morphology, DNA, embryology

Homologous Structures

Similar structure, different function; common ancestry

Analogous Structures

Similar function, different structure; no common ancestry

Vestigial Structures

Structures that no longer serve a function (e.g., appendix)

Phylogeny

Evolutionary history and relationships among species