CCE: Lifespan

Define genotype & phenotype.

genotype = person's genetic inheritance

phenotype = observed characteristics; due to COMBO of heredity & environ

--> e.g., super tall genes + environ stressors = taller-than-average, but shorter than potential

What are Rutter's indicators? what were his thoguhts on positive outcomes for high-risk babies?

Rutter: predictors of child psychopathology; the higher the number, the more likely the negative outcomes

Indicators:

1. severe marital discord

2. low SES

3. overcrowding/large fam size

4. parental criminality

5. maternal psychopathology

6. placement outside home

positive outcomes for high-risk babies MORE LIKELY when:

a) fewer stressors right after birth

b) easy temperament (⬆️social responsively, communication, eating/sleeping bxs)

c) stable support from parent/other caregiver

Explain Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model

says development is the result of interactions between systems:

- microsystem = direct, immediate environ (family, peers, teachers)

- mesosystem = interactions btw microsystem components (e.g., how family members interact w/teachers, school)

-exosystem = external social settings or broader community structures that do not directly involve the individual, but still indirectly influence them

- macrosystem = overarching environ influences (cultural beliefs & practices, econ conds., political ideologies)

- chronosystem = (think TIME) effects of factors long-term/over time

what is niche-picking?

when children actively seek out experiences consistent with their genetic predisposition

--> e.g., A child genetically inclined toward athletics chooses to join the soccer team, seeks physical activity, and spends time with sporty peers

what is reaction range?

the idea that genes set the limits & the environment determines where you fall within those limits

also called canalization (like "canal")

What are the 3 types of genotype-environment correlations?

(importance in order, from early childhood ➡️ adulthood/independence)

1. PASSIVE genotype-environ = parents providing both your genes & environ

--> e.g., A musically talented parent provides both the genes and a music-rich home. The child didn't choose this environment, but it aligns with their genetic potential.

2. EVOCATIVE (or REACTIVE) genotype-environ = others responding to you based on you genetic traits

--> e.g., a naturally outgoing child gets more social attention & positive reinforcement, which strengthens their social skills

3. ACTIVE genotype-environ (i.e., NICHE-PICKING) = when children actively seek out experiences consistent with their genetic predisposition

--> e.g., A child genetically inclined toward athletics chooses to join the soccer team, seeks physical activity, and spends time with sporty peers

explain what an evolutionary perspective (on psychology) is

focuses on how natural selection predisposes organisms toward certain behaviors

ethologists = focus on adaptive insincts & drives

evolutionary psychogists = mental & emotional adaptations that helped ancestors survive & reproduce

What are critical vs. sensitive periods?

critical periods = specific & predetermined, crucial periods of time

sensitive periods = longer in duration, more flexible; what we believe HUMANS have

critical = crucial // sensitive = best not to miss

types of chromosomal disorders

Disorder due to

1) Dominant (e.g., Huntington's) or Recessive gene (e.g., cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, Tay-Sachs, & PKU)

2) Chromosomal abnormality = variation in number or structure of chromosome(s)

- varied number (aneuploidy) - Down syndrome (autosomal); Klinefelter, Turner (sex)

- altered structure:

(a) deletion = part of chrome missing (e.g., Prader-Willi)

(b) translocation = transfer of segment to another chrome

(c) inversion = piece breaks off and reattaches upside down

Huntington's disease

autosomal dominant gene disorder

hereditary, progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement, cognition, and emotions

- when one parent has dominant gene, child has 50% chance; both parents, 75% chance

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

an autosomal recessive disorder, which means it is caused by two autosomal recessive genes.

In other words, it occurs when a biological child inherits the PKU gene from both parents and, consequently, is homozygous with regard to that gene.

When both parents are carriers of the recessive gene (i.e., they each have only one recessive gene for PKU), each of their biological children has a 25% chance of having the disease.

A person with PKU is unable to adequately metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine.

Consequently, treatment is a diet low in phenylalanine that begins soon after birth and is maintained through the lifespan (e.g., no milk, cheese, meat, fish, or eggs).

Without treatment, the build-up of phenylalanine causes intellectual disability, hyperactivity, seizures, eczema, a musty body odor, hypopigmentation, and stunted growth.

Tay-Sachs disease

An autosomal recessive disorder

The disease progresses rapidly, leading to vision and hearing loss, seizures, muscle stiffness, and eventual loss of motor skills

Prader-Willi syndrome

caused by a deletion on the paternal chromosome 15.

characterized by intellectual disability, low muscle tone, and a constant feeling of hunger (hyperphagia), leading to excessive eating and obesity

What are the prenatal stages of development?

Prenatal Stages:

1) GERMINAL = ≤ 2 weeks

2) EMBRYONIC = 3rd-8th week

3) FETAL = ≥ 9th week

Explain the basics of chromosomes & the broad categories of chromosomal disorders.

first 22 pairs (autosomes) + the 23rd pair (that contains the sex chromosomes) ==> 46 TOTAL CHROMOSOMES (23 pairs)

autosomal disorder = d/o carried on autosome

sex-linked disorder = d/o carried on sex chromosome

Disorders happen via:

1) 1 DOM gene

2) 2 REC genes

3) ABNORMALITY

What are disorders due to dominant or recessive genes

Dominant = due to receiving 1 DOM gene

--> e.g., Huntington's (autosomal gene d/o)

Recessive: due to receiving 2 REC genes

--> e.g., cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, Tay-Sachs, PKU

disorders due to a chromosoal abnormality

chromosal d/o's = due to variation in NUBMER (aneuploidy) or structure of chromoses

Down Syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Turner syndrome

Down Syndrome

autosomal d/o; extra chromosome 21 --> causes intellect. disability, stunted physical growth & motor dev., distinct physical feats, & ⬆️risk leukemia, Alzheimers, & heart defects

Klinefelter syndrome

(males only) presence of 2+ X chromosomes, 1 Y chromosome --> small penis & testes, breasts during puberty, limited interest in sexual activity, often sterile, & possible learning disability

Turner syndrome

(females only) only one X chromosome --> short, drooping eyelids, webbed neck, stunted/absent secondary sex characteristics, possible cog deficits

Types of alterations in chromosomal structure

DELETION = part of chrome missing

TRANSLOCATION = transfer of segment to another chromo

INVERSION = chromo breaks in 2 places & segment formed by the breaks turns upside down & reattaches to the chromo (can be inherited, but in humans usually don't affect phenotype)

what are some common teratogens? is there a period of pregnancy when exposure's most dangerous?

substances causing birth defects in developing fetus

- EMBRYONIC stage exposure (3rd-8th week) ==> most likely cause MAJOR STRUCTURAL abnormalities (e.g., CNS damage most likely 3rd-6th wk)

ALCOHOL --> fetal alcohol spectrum disorder; 🧠areas most likely affected - corpus callosum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, cerebrum, basal ganglia, & frontal lobes

COCAINE --> ⬆️risk spontaneous abortion & stillbirth; high risk SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome), seizures, low birthweight, smaller head circumference; often exhibit tremors, exaggerated startle response, high-pitched cry, sleep & feeding difficulties

NICOTINE --> placental abnormalities, can cause fetal death/stillbirth; higher risk low birthweight, SIDS< & respiratory disease, emotional social cognitive deficits

LEAD --> low birthweight, intellectual disability

Alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman is likely to have the most adverse effects on her baby's prenatal development when the woman drinks during:

The first trimester.

Alcohol consumption by a woman during pregnancy can have detrimental effects on the developing fetus, with the severity and extent of the effects depending on the amount of alcohol consumed and the time during which it is consumed. There does not appear to be any safe time for alcohol consumption during pregnancy. However, the worst effects are associated with drinking during the first trimester.

What is Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder?

- range of conditions w/largely irreversible physical, behavioral, &/or cognitive abnormalities

1) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) = most severe form of FASD

- from🍺 ~daily or binge drinking; esp. during 2nd half 1st trimester (~8-13 weeks)

- look like? facial abnormalities; stunted physical growth; 🫀heart, kidney, liver defects; 👁️👂impairments; 🧠deficits; behavioral probs (hyperactivity, impulsivity, social withdrawal)

2) LESS SEVERE FORMS FASD: previously fetal alcohol effects (FES)

alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND) = characterized by 🧠cog deficits & behavioral probs 🚫👨🏻prominent facial abnormalities; stunted growth, physical defects

& alcohol-related birth defects (ARBD) = physical defects (🫀& kidney probs, 👁️👂impairment); 🚫other prominent symptoms

🧠regions affected by 🍺exposure = depends, but most likely: corpus callosum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, cerrebellum, basal ganglia, & frontal lobes

Effects of maternal malnutrition?

- associated w/miscarriage, stillbirth, & low birth weight

- may result in suppressed immune system, intellectual disability, & other serious probs

severe in 3rd trimester (esp protein deficiency) = especially damaging for developing brain; reduced neurons, myelination, & NT abnormalities

lack of folic acid = maybe spina bifida, other neural tube defects

effect of rubella, cytomegalovirus, HIV/AIDS, & stress on baby?

1) Rubella: if infected, esp during 1st trimester, 👶🏼⬆️risk for 🫀defects, blindness, deafness, intellectual disability

2) Cytomegalovirus (CMV): type of herpes virus; when passed to fetus through placenta; some have symptoms, most survive; 20-30% die perinatally; most common sx's: 🧠intellectual disability & hearing, vision impairments

3) HIV/AIDS: 20-30% passing to 👶🏼 w/out preventative measures; with antiretroviral 💊's: <1%

symptoms: slow growth, ⬆️bacterial infections, oral candidiasis

w/antiretroviral drugs: UP TO 50% survive past 10, many lasting into adolecense/young adulthood

4) stress: when severe/prolonged, ⬆️risk miscarriage, painful labor, premature delivery; ⬆️risk 👶🏼 low birthweight, hyperactive & irritable, irregular feeding, sleeping, & bowels

Important concepts w/brain development

PACE: @ birth: brain is ~25% of adult weight...by 2 y.o., 80% adult weight...this (bc synaptogenesis - new synapses/connections) & formation of glial cells (responsible for myelination of nerve fibers)... full adult weight by 16

cerebral cortex: almost entirely UNdeveloped @ birth; higher-level cognitive funcs.

- 0-3 months: primary motor & sensory areas

- by adolescence-adulthood: prefrontal cortex

- by 30: starts shrinking; neurons atrophy

- 60+: faster cell death

BUT compensation for neural loss via ➕synaptic connections & neurogenesis in hippocampus

What are early newborn reflexes?

1) Babinski = toes fan out & upward when soles of feel tickled

2) Moro (Startle) = flings arms & legs outward then toward body in response to loud noise or sudden loss of physical support

3) Rooting = turns head in direction of touch applied to cheek

4) Stepping (Walking) = makes coordinated walking movement when held upright with feet touching flat surface

What is Rooting?

Early newborn reflex. turns head in direction of touch applied to cheek

What is Moro?

AKA startle. flings arms & legs outward then toward body in response to loud noise or sudden loss of physical support. early newborn reflex

What is Babinski?

early newborn reflex. toes fan out & upward when soles of feel tickled

Infant's vision?

- WORST sense @ birth

- sees @ 20 ft what adults see @ 200-400ft

- but by 6 months, close to adult's

systematic visual cue acquisition: kinetic➡️binocular➡️pictorial cues

prefer?

- newborns prefer HIGH CONTRAST 🏁patterns

- 👩🏼 face preference w/in 2-5 days

- by 2 months, prefer their mom's face 👩🏼

Infant's auditory localization?

- @ birth, almost as good as adult's

- some auditory localization (ability to orient toward direction fo a sound) present @ birth; disappears btw 2-4 months, then reappears during rest of 1st year

- by 3 months, distinguish voices & prefer mom's

Infant's pain perception?

- sensitive to pain

- male 👶 circumsized w/out anesthesia can have more adverse reaction to later medicals (💉) 4-6 months later

infant bodies keep the score

what are the developmental milestone periods?

1-3 months: raise chin from ground & turn head side-to-side; by 3rd month: plays w/hands, fingers, brings objects to mouth

4-6 months: rolling, sitting, standing

- 4 months: rolls from tummy to back

- 5 months: sits on lap, reaches & grasps

- 6 months: sits alone, stands w/help

- 5-9 months: 🦷appear

7-9 months: more coordination, independence

- ⬆️good coordination

- 8-9 months: sits alone w/out support & begins crawling & creeping

- 9-10 months: pulls self to stand by holding furniture

10-12 months: standing, first steps

- 10-11 months: stands alone, walks w/help

- 12 months: first steps alone👣

13-15 months: walking alone, stairs, scribbling, cup

- 13-14 months: walks alone w/wide-based gait

- 15 months: creeps up stairs, scribbles spontaneously, uses cup well

16-24 months: stairs, spoon, 1/2 kids potty trained

- 18 months: runs clumsily, walks up stairs w/hand held, can use spoon🥄

- 24 months: up & down stairs alone, kicks ball, turns book pages, ~50% kids using 🚽

25-48 months: 30 jumping jacks/hand-finger; 36 tricycle/dressing/potty-trained; R-L preference 4 yrs

- 30 months: jumps w/both feet, good hand-finger coordination

- 36 months: rides tricycle🚲, dresses & undresses👗simple clothing, completely 🚽trained

- 48 months: stable preference for R or L hand✋

What are developmental milestones between 1-3 months?

raise chin from ground & turn head side-to-side;

then plays w/ hands, fingers, brings objects to mouth

What are developmental milestones between 4-6 months?

rolling, sitting, standing

- rolls from tummy to back

- sits on lap, reaches & grasps

- sits alone, stands w/help

What are developmental milestones between 7-9 months?

more coordination, independence

- ⬆good coordination

- sits alone w/out support & begins crawling & creeping

- pulls self to stand by holding furniture

What are developmental milestones between 10-12 months?

standing, first steps

- stands alone, walks w/help

- first steps alone👣

What are developmental milestones between 13-15 months?

walking alone, stairs, scribbling, holding a cup

- walks alone w/wide-based gait

- creeps up stairs, scribbles spontaneously, uses cup well

What are developmental milestones between 16-24 months?

stairs, spoon, 1/2 kids potty trained

- runs clumsily, walks up stairs w/hand held, can use spoon🥄

- up & down stairs alone, kicks ball, turns book pages, ~50% kids using 🚽

gross- motor milestones for 2 yr old children?

include climbing up on furniture, walking alone, walking up and down stairs one at a time, and catching a large ball using hands and chest.

gross motor milestones for 3 yr old children?

pedaling a tricycle, kicking a stationary ball forward, throwing a ball overhand, going up stairs using alternate feet, and running without falling.

gross motor milestones for 4 yr old children

include hopping on one foot, standing on one leg, running to kick a ball, bouncing a ball, and going down stairs using alternate feet.

gross motor milestones for 5 yr old children?

include riding a scooter or bicycle, jumping rope, hopping on alternate feet, jumping over low obstacles, and catching a ball with both hands and arms bent.

What are the stats on illicit drug use in adolescents?

# 1) 🍺 11.6% - alcohol

# 2) 💊 8.8% - illicit drugs (of this, ⬆️ marijuana @ 7.1%)

# 3) 🚬 7.8% - tobacco

Describe physical maturation in adolescence

- growth spurt: starts 11-12 (G), 13-14 (B) ---lasts 3-4 yrs---> done ~15 (G), ~17 (B)

- gender diffs: girls more balance, flexibility, agility; boys more strength, gross-motor abilities

effects of early vs. late-maturing in boys vs. girls?

BOYS:

early growth:

- ✅⬆️popular, athletic

- 🚫but ⬆️body dissatisfaction, ⬆️drug, alc use

late growth:

- seen as more "childish"

- ⬆️attention-seeking, ⬇️self-confidence

early OR late: ⬆️depression

GIRLS:

early-maturing:

- 🚫: poor self-concept, unpopular, ⬆️dissatisfied w/physical dev, ⬇️ academic achievement, ⬆️sexual precocious behavior, drug/alc use, ⬆️depression, eating disorder

late-maturing:

- treated like "little girls"

late-maturing:

- 🚫treated like "little girls"; dissatisfied w/appearance

- ✅ outperform peers academically

IN GENERAL:

- most severe when perceive selves diff from peers

Describe visual changes in adulthood

- ~40: some inability to focus (presbyopia)

- 65+: visual changes interfering w/reading, driving, other daily life aspects -- loss visual acuity, ⬇️perception depth, color; ⬆️💡sensitivity; deficits 👁️🔎visual search deficits; dynamic vision🏃🏻(moving objects); speed visual processing

Describe sexual activity in late adulthood

sex activity mid-life predictor sex activity late adulthood

across the board:

- % identifying as "sexually active" decreases w/age

- health problems in men - primary reason for lack of sex activity, across men & women

Describe hearing changes in late adulthood

- by 40: most adults hearing probs

- by 75+: but MOST no probs until after 75; btw 75-79, 50% have 👂deficits impacting daily life

--> biggest prob: ⬆️frequency sounds

Changes in strength, coordination, reaction time as you age?

- most consistently, behavioral slowing

What is Piaget's Constructivism?

- Piage's theory of cognitive development

- says we actively construct higher levels of knowledge from the contributions of biological maturation & environment

- motivation for cog dev. ==> from drive toward cognitive equilibrium (equilibration)

- development via disequilibrium: we develop when we face a discrepancy btw reality & our existing understanding of the world (repotoire of cognitive schemas) --> resolved via adaptation

Piaget's "adaptation"?

resolves disequilibrium

involves 2 processes:

1) assimilation = incorporating new knowledge into existing cog schemas

--> e.g., childing banging, hitting, etc. a new toy as she would other toys, bc she's assimilating it into her existing repotoire of schemas

--> e.g.,

2) accomodation = modification of existing schemas to incorporate new knowledge

--> e.g., child modifying her behavior w/the new toy to accomodate it's unqiue properties (maybe has to be gentle with it)

--> e.g.,

What are Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

1) SENSORIMOTOR (0-2 yrs):

- sensory learning

- learning via circular reactions

🔑developments: object permanence (substage 4); causality, deferred imitation (imitating another's behavior hours/days after emitted), & make-believe/symbolic play

2) PREOPERATIONAL (2-7 yrs) :

- learning via symbolic learning

- precausal (transduction) reasoning = incomplete understanding cause/effect; magical thinking; animism; egocentrism = inability to separate perspective from that of others (e.g., __)

- 🚫conservation --> irreversibility, centration

- 🚫 theory of mind !

3) CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7-11 yrs):

- sophisticated classification; seriate (order items); understand part-whole relationships

- ✅conservation = conservation of # first, then liquids, length, etc.; req's reversibility & decantation; acquired via horizontal decalage = gradual acquisition of abilities w/in a stage of development

4) FORMAL OPERATIONAL (11 or 12+ yrs):

- ✅ abstract thought, hypothetico-deductive reasoning = can identify competing hypotheses abt problem & strategies for systematically testing those hypotheses

- adolescent egocentrism = renewed egocentrism

Elkind (1984):

--> personal fable = belief one's unique & not subject to natural laws governing others; no one can understand them

--> imaginary audience = belief one is always the center of attention

What is the order of Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

1) SENSORIMOTOR (0-2 yrs)

2) PREOPERATIONAL (2-7 yrs)

3) CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7-11 yrs)

4) FORMAL OPERATIONAL (11 or 12+ yrs)

Describe Piaget's sensorimotor stage

1) (0-2 yrs):

- learns about objects through sensory info; how they look, feel, taste;

- learning via circular reactions = actions performed in order to reproduce events that initially occurred by chance; predominant type of learning in this phase

- 6 substages: 1️⃣reflexive schemes (0-1 mo) 2️⃣primary circular reactions (1-4 mo) 3️⃣ secondary circular reactions (4-8 mo) 4️⃣coordinated secondary circular reactions (8-12 mo) 5️⃣tertiary circular reactions (12-18 mo) 6️⃣ mental representation (18-24 mo)

🔑developments: object permanence (substage 4); causality, deferred imitation (imitating another's behavior hours/days after emitted), & make-believe/symbolic play

Circular reactions:

primary (repetition of actions on the infant's own body, 1-4 months), secondary (repetition of actions on external objects for desired consequences, 4-8 months), and tertiary (intentional experimentation with new actions to achieve varied results, 12-18 months)

What are the substages occurring in Piaget's sensorimotor phase? How is the child learning in this phase?

#1 - Reflexive Schemas (0-1 mo.) = infant exercises their reflexes

#2 - Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 mo) = 👶🏼 attempts to repeat pleasurable events involving own body (e.g., thumbsucking)

#3 - Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 mo) = attempts to reproduce pleasurable events involving other ppl/objects (e.g., shakes a rattle)

#4 - Coordinated Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12 mo) = combines secondary circular reactions (schemes) into new, more complex action sequences (e.g., uncovers object then grasps it)

#5 - Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 mo.) = deliberately varies an action/action sequence to discover consequences of doing so (e.g., drops toy from different heights)

#6 - Mental Representation (18-24 mo.) = develops representational (symbolic) thought; these allow them to think abt absent objects & past events and to anticipate consequences of an action

What are reflexive schemas?

(0-1 mo.) infant exercises their reflexes

part of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (substage 1)

What are primary circular reactions?

(1-4 mo) attempts to repeat pleasurable events involving own body (e.g., thumb sucking)

part of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (substage 2)

What are secondary circular reactions?

(4-8 mo) attempts to reproduce pleasurable events involving other ppl/objects (e.g., shakes a rattle)

part of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (substage 3)

What are coordinated secondary circular reactions?

(8-12 mo) combines secondary circular reactions (schemes) into new, more complex action sequences (e.g., uncovers object then grasps it)

part of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (substage 4)

What are tertiary circular reactions?

(12-18 mo.) deliberately varies an action/action sequence to discover consequences of doing so (e.g., drops toy from different heights)

part of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (substage 5)

What is mental representation?

(18-24 mo.) develops representational (symbolic) thought; which involves forming internal representations that allow him/her to think about absent objects and past events and to anticipate the consequences of an action.

part of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (substage 6)

When does object permanence begin to develop according to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?

In substage 4 of the sensorimotor stage (coordinated secondary circular reactions)

Describe Piaget's preoperational stage

2) (2-7 yrs) :

- can learn through: symbolic (semiotic) function = extension of representational thought; permits learning via language, mental images, & other symbols

- more sophisticated symbolic play

- limited by:

- precausal (transduction) reasoning = incomplete understanding cause/effect;

- magical thinking = thinking abt something will cause to occur; animism = (i.e., anthropomorphizing) tendency to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects

- egocentrism = inability to separate perspective from that of others (e.g., __)

- irreversibility = actions can't be reversed

- centration = focus on only ONE feature of an object;

- can't conserve = says liquid in taller glass is MORE liquid

What are the main limitations present in Piaget’s preoperational stage?

• can't conserve (says liquid in taller glass is MORE liquid)

• centration

• egocentrism

  • precausal (transduction) reasoning

    • magical thinking

    • animism

• irreversibility

What is necessary for reversibility to develop?

symbolism

What is precausal (transduction) reasoning?

incomplete understanding of cause and effect. can cause a child to tend to see a causal relationship between events that occur in sequence when none exists.

limitation in preoperational stage

What does egocentrism result in during the preoperational stage?

leads to precausal (transductive) reasoning which ultimately results in magical thinking and animism

What is magical thinking?

thinking about something will cause it to occur.

limitation in preoperational stage and is a result of transduction reasoning

What is animism?

(i.e., anthropomorphizing) tendency to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects.

limitation in preoperational stage and is a result of transduction reasoning

What is egocentrism in Piaget’s preoperational stage of cognitive development?

inability to separate perspective from that of others

limitation in preoperational stage and result of centration and what causes a lot of the other limitations

What is centration?

focus on only ONE feature of an object, usually the most noticeable feature

limitation in preoperational stage

What is irreversibility?

inability to recognize that actions can be reversed

limitation in preoperational stage

Describe Piaget's concrete operational stage

3) (7-11 yrs):

- capable of mental operations (logical rules for transforming & manipulating info) which results in more sophisticated classification; seriate (order items); understand part-whole relationships in relational terms (ex/ brighter, lighter)

- conservation = conservation of # first, then liquids, length, etc.; req's reversibility & decentration; acquired via horizontal decalage = gradual acquisition of abilities w/in a stage of development

What is conservation?

develops gradually, with conservation of number occurring first, followed by liquid, length, weight, and then displacement volume.

What does the development of conservation depend on?

reversibility and decentration

What is horizontal decalage?

Piaget coined it to describe the gradual acquisition of conservation abilities and other abilities within a specific stage of development

ex/ are unable to apply a learned function to specific problems.

Describe the Piaget's formal operational stage of development

4) (11 or 12+ yrs):

- ✅ abstract thought, hypothetico-deductive reasoning = can identify competing hypotheses abt problem & strategies for systematically testing those hypotheses

- adolescent egocentrism = renewed egocentrism

--> personal fable = belief that one is unique & not subject to natural laws governing others

--> imaginary audience = belief that one is always the center of attention

What is imaginary audience?

belief that one is always the center of attention

limitation in Piaget's formal operational stage of development and a result of adolescent egocentrism

What is personal fable?

belief that one is unique & not subject to natural laws governing others

limitation in Piaget's formal operational stage of development and result of adolescent egocentrism

What does adolescent egocentrism result in?

personal fable and imaginary audience

What are information processing theories of cognitive development?

say ⬆️complexity of individual cognitive abilities = ⬆️complexity & efficiency of cognition

- focus on development w/in specific domains (attention, memory, processing speed) rather than global principles

- cog ability = task-specific; interested in how specific skills used for specific tasks

what is Vygotsky's sociocultural theory?

- all learning is socially mediated & cognitive development is first interpersonal

- zone of proximal development (ZPD) = level of development just beyond current level, reachable when adult/older peer gives appropriate scaffolding

- scaffolding = instruction, assistance, & support; most effective when involves modeling, giving cues, & encouragement;

- symbolic play = practice

Vygotsky's internalization

a key concept in his sociocultural theory; process by which we transform social activities and interactions into internal mental processes

Theory of mind (ToM) development?

theory of mind = ability to make inferences about another's representational states & predict behavior accordingly

- 2-3 y.o. = become aware other's mental states & begin understand ppl have different perceptions, emotions, & desires influencing their actions

- 4-5 y.o. = understand another's thoughts can be false/inaccurate & ppl can act on false beliefs

- 5+ y.o. = more sophisticated around 6; ppl's actions not always consistent w/their true thoughts & feelings; perception is subjective (ppl interpret, not just record events); ppl can have mixed feelings about events/ppl

Describe memory strategies in childhood

- preschoolers: non-deliberate strategies ("incidental mnemonics") in ineffective ways

- early elementary: more effective, but often distracted irrelevant info; can apply strategy in immediate situation, but doesn't translate to new

- 9-10: regular memory strategy use; rehearsal, organization, elaboration

- adolescence: strategies "fine-tuned," used more deliberately & selectively

- memory improvments related to metacognition (ability to think about thinking) & metamemory (ability to reflect on own memory processes)

What is childhood (infantile) amnesia?

idea that we have no memory of events prior to age 3-4 bc our brain centers aren't developed...

BUT research says early memory varies across the lifespan

What are the effects of age on memory?

- vary, some memory affected more than others

- ⬆️age, decrease in explicit memory (more so than implicit)

- greatest age-related declines:

(1) recent long-term (secondary) memory ex/recall list of words recently read

(2) working memory

- episodic MORE affected than semantic

- effects caused by processing speed decline

What are theories on language development?

1) NATIVIST = biological mechanisms facilitate language acquisition

- language acquisition device (LAD) = proposed by Chomsky; like a built-in algorithm that allows us to learn language just by being exposed to it

- (i.e., nature vs. nurture)

2) BEHAVIORIST approach = language acquired like ANY OTHER behavior... via imitation & reinforcement

- (i.e., nurture vs. nature)

3) INTERACTIONISTS = language dev attributable to COMBO of biological & environmental factors

- (i.e., nature AND nurture)

What is semantic bootstrapping?

using the meaning of words to figure out grammar

What is syntactic bootstrapping?

using grammar to infer meaning of new words

What are phonemes & morphemes?

phonemes = smallest units of SOUND (e.g., letters in alphabet)

morphemes = smallest units of SOUND W/MEANING (e.g., cat, un-, pre-, -ed)

What are the stages of language acquisition?

1) Crying:

- 3 distinct patterns = (1) basic (hunger) cry, (2) angry cry, & (3) pain cry

- pain cry most likely to elicit immediate response; ⬆️physio response

- "best" response = mom raises & holds baby upright on should for close physical contact

2) Cooing & Babbling:

- 6-8 weeks

- mainly vowels, when happy/contented

- @ 4 months: babbling; sounds from all languages

- deaf children: "babble" w/their hands

3) Echolalia & expressive jargon:

- 9 months

- echolalia = imitating speech sounds & words w/out understanding of meaning

- then expressive jargon = vocalizations that sound like sentences but still have no meaning

4) First words:

- by 13 mo., understand ~50 words

- 10-15 months: first word

- first words: often nominals (labels for objects), people, or events, but action words, modifiers, & personal-social words also occur; nomals most likely refer to dynamic objects (dog, car) or familiar, often-used items (spoon)

- holophrastic speech = using single words to express whole phrases & sentences; most exhibit by ~1-2 yrs old (12-24 mo.)

--> single word = question, comment, or command

5) Telegraphic speech:

- 18-24 mo.: telegraphic speech = string 2+ words to make sentence ("me go." "more juice.")

- by 27 months: prepositions, pronouns added to nouns, verbs, & adjectives; vocab = 300-400 words

What is telegraphic speech?

(18-24 months) string 2+ words to make sentence ("me go." "more juice.")

What is holophrastic speech?

(12-24 months) using single words to express whole phrases & sentences; most exhibit by ~1-2 yrs old

What are the language errors of overextension & underextension?

underextension = word applied too narrowly to an object/situation

--> e.g., using "dish" to refer to the specific plastic dish he normally uses

overextension = when a word is applied to a wider collection of objects/events than is appropriate

--> e.g., calls all four-legged animals "doggie"

What is temperament?

a person's basic disposition, which influences how they respond to situations

How is behavioral inhibition related to temperament?

Kagan (1998) said behavioral inhibition:

- has a biological contribution (CNS reactivity)

- is relatively stable characteristic

but also:

- warm, supportive parents can reduce intensity of inhibited child reactions

- cold, intrusive, overprotective parenting can increase intensity