Criminology - U2 - Interactionism and Labelling Theory

Labelling Theory (Howard Becker, 1963)

Becker argued that deviance is not inherent in an act but depends on how society reacts to it. Society applies labels, deciding what is considered deviant. This means deviance is a social construct rather than an objective fact.

Social Reaction to Deviance

The same act can be seen as deviant or acceptable depending on social context. For example, killing in war is seen as heroic, but outside of war, it is labelled as murder. Societal norms and power structures influence these perceptions.

Deviance as a Social Construct

No action is inherently deviant. An act only becomes deviant when labelled as such by society. This means deviance changes across cultures, time periods, and social groups.

Master Status

Once someone is labelled as deviant, this identity overrides all others (e.g., student, worker) and becomes their dominant characteristic. This can impact how others see them and how they see themselves.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (Edwin Lemert, 1951)

Being labelled as deviant can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where the individual internalises the label and continues deviant behavior, reinforcing the stereotype. Lemert argued that this process leads to further secondary deviance, as the individual is pushed deeper into a deviant identity.

Primary Deviance

Primary deviance refers to minor rule-breaking acts that have not been labelled as deviant. These acts do not affect a person's identity (e.g., skipping school, underage drinking).

Secondary Deviance

Secondary deviance happens when a person is publicly labelled as deviant. The societal reaction pushes them into further deviance, reinforcing their criminal identity.

Deviance Amplification Spiral (Jock Young, 1971)

Attempts to control deviance can increase it. Young's study of hippy cannabis users found that police crackdowns led hippies to embrace their deviant identity further, escalating drug use.

Negotiation of Justice (Aaron Cicourel, 1968)

Cicourel found that justice is not applied equally. Middle-class offenders were often let off with warnings, while working-class youths were more likely to be arrested and charged due to police stereotypes of "typical delinquents."

Differential Enforcement

The law is enforced more harshly on some groups than others. Working-class and ethnic minority individuals are policed more heavily, leading to more arrests, even if crime rates are similar to other groups.

Police Stereotyping (Piliavin & Briar, 1964)

Police decide who to arrest based on stereotypes related to mannerisms, clothing, gender, class, ethnicity, time, and place of arrest. Young males in high-crime areas at night are more likely to be stopped.

Social Control Agencies and Crime Data

Crime statistics show who gets labelled as criminal, not actual crime levels. Police focus on certain groups (e.g., working-class males), meaning statistics are a social construct rather than a true measure of crime.

Interactionist View of Crime Statistics

Official statistics are biased and unreliable because they reflect police priorities and stereotypes. White-collar crimes are underreported, while working-class crime is overrepresented.